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Yule (, ) is a winter festival and time of the year historically observed by heathen Germanic peoples that was later merged with the festival of Christmas during the process of Christianisation. The oldest accounts describe two Yule-months around the winter solstice in early, and sometimes explicitly heathen, Germanic calendars.
Later, and more extensive, Old Norse sources also describe a Yule festival occurring during this period, which possibly began on Hǫkunótt and continued for several days. During it, feasting, ceremonial drinking and Heitstrenging was central, and plays and games likely took place. Tales set at this time frequently feature supernatural beings visiting halls and farms, such as trolls and undead draugar. Such traditions closely resemble folk practices and beliefs from the modern period such as julebukking and the Wild Hunt, which may have partly heathen roots.
Because of the blending of the festival period and Christmas, Yule and its cognates are still used to refer to Christmas and the season of Christmastide in English and some other Northern European languages, including Swedish and Finnish. In addition to this, adherents of some new religious movements, such as Modern Germanic paganism, celebrate Yule as an independent festival to Christmas.
Various theories have been put forward on the meaning and origin of the Proto-Germanic root of 'Yule'. Scholars including Jacob Grimm have proposed a now widespread, but largely rejected, idea, that it is related to 'wheel', in reference to the completing of a solar cycle at the winter solstice. In support of this, it has been noted that often represent the Christmas celebration with a wheel. It has been noted, however, that this in Old English is hweol, and there is no clear reason to connect it to geol ('Yule'). A more plausible etymology is to link it to , the ancestor of . In the ancient period and Middle Ages, 'joke' referred to "entertainment" or "festivity". 'Yule' could therefore be interpreted as having originally meant a "period of joy and public celebration". Despite these efforts, the ultimate origin of jehwlą-, and related terms, remains unclear.
'Yule' is cognate with (jiuleis), Old Norse: , and its descendants Icelandic, Faroese language and Norwegian Nynorsk , and Danish language, Swedish language, and Norwegian Bokmål jul. The Proto-Germanic root was also loaned into the Finnic languages, giving rise to . Later, a North Germanic word for Yule (such as jól) was loaned again, giving joulu. This possibly occurred through as an intermediate with the same Germanic root. 'Yule' and its modern cognates typically denote Christmas and the Christmas period, with a slight exception being , which can have that meaning but normally carries the more general sense of "celebration". It remains uncertain if there are any Indo-European cognates that are not derived from Proto-Germanic, though numerous speculative attempts have been made. It has been suggested that (later, ), which was borrowed into English in the 14th century as 'jolly', may itself borrowed from (with the Old French suffix -if; compare Old French "easy", Modern French festif = fest "feast" + ). But the Oxford English Dictionary sees this explanation for jolif as unlikely. The French word is first attested in the Anglo-Norman Estoire des Engleis ("History of the English People"), written by Geoffrey Gaimar between 1136 and 1140.
In addition to denoting Christmas and the period around it, 'Yule' is also used for a heathen midwinter festival celebrated by Scandinavians, and likely other Germanic peoples, before their Christianisation. In scholarly usage, the same English term is also applied as an umbrella label for pre-Christian Germanic midwinter observances, including Old Norse , which can denote the midwinter season itself. This association with Old Norse religion is reflected in terms derived from such as jólnar, used in the poetry of Eyvindr skáldaspillir to refer to the gods. The singular form Jólnir ("Yule man") is also one of the many names of Odin. While the 12th century Old Norse Ágrip describes as coming from Jólnir, the opposite is true. Other Old Norse terms derived from include jólaǫl ("Yule ale"), jólagjǫf ("Yule gift"), jólaaptann ("Yule-eve") and jóladrykkja ("Yule drinking"). Some compound nouns derived from "Yule" in English are first attested long after Christianisation, including Yuletide ("Yule-time"; c. 1475), yule-candle (1808), yule-game (1611) and yule-log (1725).
Two adjacent months named after Yule are recorded by the English historian Bede in The Reckoning of Time, dated to . Bede writes that before his time, the heathen Anglo-Saxons had reckoned their months based on the phases of the moon, and that they had called both December and January Giuli (the months of Yule). A 10th century English text refers to these two months as se ǽrra Geola and se æftera Geola, "the earlier" and "the latter Yule month". Bede further writes that the heathen English started their year on 25 December, when Christians celebrate the birth of Jesus, and says that they called this Modranecht ("Mothers' night"). This day likely fell between the two months of giuli. Bede further says the night got its name from the ceremonies he believed they performed then; the mothers are typically interpreted as goddesses, possibly the dísir.
Old Norse sources also record two Yule months: Jólmánuðr ("Yule month") and Ýlir, a term with the same root that is likely pre-Christian. The Icelandic Bókarbót, usually dated to around 1220, places Ýlir from the middle of November to the middle of December in the Julian calendar, and Jólmánuðr following afterwards into the middle of January. After the official Christianisation of Scandinavia, the Church gradually introduced the Julian calendar, with it being largely established by the middle of the 1100s. Nonetheless, a lunisolar time-reckoning was practiced in Sweden as late as the early 1900s, where the Jultungel ("Yule moon") was the moon that was seen during Epiphany and the Dísting market was held on the following full moon.
Given the large geographic area over which there is evidence for moon-based calendars with two Yule months, it has been suggested that they originated substantially earlier than their first attestations, when the relevant Germanic peoples lived closer together. This may be before the migrations of the Goths from the Baltic coast, and possibly the Angles from southern Scandinavia to Britain. An early dating would further support the development of the calendar in a heathen context, before the adoption of Christianity.
Bede in the 8th century says that the two Anglo-Saxon Yule months (Giuli) are linked to the winter solstice. He writes that they "derive their name from the day when the Sun turns back and to increase", with one month before the solstice and one following it. In surviving Anglo-Saxon calendars, the winter solstice was generally deemed to be December 25, following the Julian calendar. According to Andreas Nordberg, an issue with this is that the heathen Anglo-Saxons used a lunisolar calendar, which Bede describes, in which each month lasted a full waxing and waning of the moon. The two Anglo-Saxon Yule months would therefore move relative to the winter solstice and it could not always fall in the middle of them.
In Old Norse sources, the only exact timing of the Norsemen Yule (Jól) is found in Hákonar saga góða. It describes how the Nordic heathen Yule began on hǫkunótt, which is equated with miðsvetrarnótt ("Midwinter Night"), and continued for three days. Although the English midwinter referred to the time of the winter solstice the Scandinavian Midwinter Night was about one month after the winter solstice. Winter in Scandinavia is deemed to last longer than in southern Germanic regions. In Old Norse sources that divided the year into two seasons, winter was deemed to begin with the "Winter Nights" in mid-October and to end in mid-April. Hǫkunótt only occurs in this passage, and is alternatively spelt hǫggunótt in Fríssbók. The etymology of hǫkunótt is not clear but various interpretations have been put forward, including relating it to the verb hǫggva ("to hew", "to slaughter") in reference to the sacrifice of animals at the blót that took place at that time.
Scholars have argued that the Nordic heathen Yule feast took place at the winter solstice, despite Snorri Sturluson not placing it then. Andreas Nordberg proposes, instead, that the Nordic heathen Yule was celebrated on the full moon of the lunar month following the winter solstice (the lunar month starting on the first new moon after the solstice). This could range from 5 January at the earliest to 2 February at the latest in the Gregorian calendar. Nordberg places the Nordic Midwinter Nights on 19 to 21 January in the Gregorian calendar, falling roughly in the middle of his range of Yule dates. In addition to Snorri's account, Nordberg's dating is consistent with the account of the great blót at Lejre by Thietmar of Merseburg. This interpretation has received scholarly support.
Communal eating was central to Yule, which is seen in the use of jól in skaldic poetry to mean 'feast' in the kenning for 'battle': Huginn]] jól ('a raven's (Yule) feast'). Jólaveizlur ("Yule-feasts") are also widely attested in medieval Old Norse accounts of pre-Christian celebrations, including the Yule-feast of King Halfdanr svarti in his eponymous saga, where all the food and ale was made to disappear by a Sámi man. Another notable example is in Hákonar saga góða, where Hákon the Good is forced to take part in blót-feasts in Mære and Lade, including eating meat from the sacrificed horses, as part of his responsibilities as a king. Yule has further been identified by some scholars with the álfablót ("elf-blót") recorded in Ólafs saga helga, though this has been rejected by others as álfablót were likely held in autumn, not winter.
Drinking ceremonies also likely took place at Yule, consistent with their prominence in Germanic paganism more widely. Early evidence of this is found in Þorbjǫrn hornklofi's Haraldskvæði, written around 900 CE, where Harald Fairhair "drinks Yule", or "drinks to Yule":
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Here, "drinking Yule" seems to be synonymous with celebrating it. At the feast in Mære, King Hákon also drinks toasts that were poured for him, consistent with the importance of ritual drinking at Yule.
The importance of drinking at Yule is likely reflected in surviving customs after Christianisation. Den ældre Gulathings-Lov, an early law code from Norway, imposes punishments for incorrect preparation of ale for jól ('Yule' or 'Christmas'). The required practices include brewing in groups, unless one lives very remotely, and hallowing the ale to thank Christ and St Mary til árs. oc til friðar ("for prosperity and peace") - a ritual formula that likely originated in heathen contexts. This has been interpreted as an example of missionaries Christianising a heathen custom by replacing heathen gods with Christian figures. Furthermore, Hákonar saga góða says that in King Hákon's effort to Christianise Norway, he shifted Yule to Christmas time. He also imposed a fine on anyone who did not have a measure of ale at Yule (estimated to be around 16.2 litres), and made it law for the holiday to continue as long as the ale lasted.
| Heðinn fór einn saman heim ór skógi jólaaftan ok fann trollkonu. Sú reið vargi ok hafði orma at taumum ok bauð fylgð sína Heðni. "Nei," sagði hann. Hon sagði: "Þess skaltu gjalda at bragarfulli." Um kveldit óru heitstrengingar. Var fram leiddr sónargöltr. Lögðu menn þar á hendr sínar ok strengðu menn þá heit at bragarfulli. | Hethin was coming home alone from the forest one Yule-eve, and found a troll-woman; she rode on a wolf, and had snakes in place of a bridle. She asked Hethin for his company. "Nay," said he. She said, "Thou shalt pay for this at the king's toast." That evening the great vows (heitstrengingar) were taken; the sacred boar (sonargöltr) was brought in, the men laid their hands thereon, and took their vows at the king's toast (bragafull). |
Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks similarly takes place on Yule-Eve and describes people placing their hands on a pig referred to as a sonargöltr before swearing solemn oaths at the bragafull ('toast', 'libation'). Some manuscripts of the text explicitly refer to the pig as holy, that it was devoted to Freyr and that after the oath-swearing it was sacrificed at a blót.
The earlier discussed stanza from Haraldskvæði uses the term "Frey’s leikr", which may be a Yuletide ritual dedicated to the god. Leikr, and the verb leika, typically refer to an activity such as a "game", "dramatic performance" or "dance" . The phrase is, however, also used in the later Ragnars saga loðbrókar as a kenning for battle and this may be the meaning intended in Haraldskvæði. This interpretation has alternatively been suggested to be a misunderstanding of the earlier meaning. Furthermore, leikr is cognate with , which has diverse meanings from 'play', 'sacrifice', 'gift' and 'battle'.
A further possible attestation is the gothikon, a performance described in the 10th century Byzantine De Ceremoniis as taking place on Twelfth Night. The performance consisted of two groups of men, each performing a circle dance, one circle inside the other, while accompanied by two pairs of men wearing masks and skins. Throughout the dance, the performers hit their shields with sticks, while shouting "Toúl" ("τούλ"). This word's meaning is debated but is widely identified as a misspelling or misunderstanding of jól ("Yule"), and the performance as part of a Yule tradition. While the text identifies the dancers as Goths, these are not elsewhere attested in Constantinople after around 500. It is possible they were instead Scandinavians, possibly from Gotland or Götaland, who are widely attested as Varangians. This description has been noted for its similarity to a fresco of two fighting warriors on the ceiling of St Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. One has a round shield and an Dane axe, likely intended of a visual marker of their identity as a Varangian and a Scandinavian elite. The other fighter has the head of a dog, possibly a mask like in the Book of ceremonies, that may derive from heathen religious dramas connected to berserkir. Notably, two felt animal masks dating to the 10th century have been discovered in Hedeby.
Often the visits result in conflict, as in Grettis saga, in which Grettir beheads the undead shepherd Glamur, who had been haunting the area at Yule. Another Yule, a troll-woman who was attacking a hall is driven back to her waterfall home by Grettir, who then kills her. This section of the saga closely resembles tales such as the Old English poem Beowulf and is likely part of a shared tradition. Strong similarities are also seen between these tales and folktales recorded in the 18th century in Iceland, such as Sagan af Grimi Skeljungsbana. Changes are seen over time, however, with an overall shift from the hero defeating the visitor with his own strength, to relying on external factors like calling on Jesus or the light of dawn. Furthermore, there is a general increase in the number of invading beings and in Iceland, they are huldufólk or elves, rather than the older trolls and ghosts.
The host is variously led by a diverse range of figures, for example the figures from Germanic heroic legend, Sigurd Svein and Guro Rysserova. In several regions of northern Europe, Odin leads the hunt (or the similar Wodenjäger or Odinjœgeren). Old Norse sources also describe Odin and his group in a way that closely resembles almost all aspects of Wild Host traditions, such as his leading of a host of the dead einherjar, along with valkyrjur, who collect the newly dead. Odin is recorded as stealing Yule food in Flateyjarbók's Haralds þáttr hárfagra, similar to in later accounts of the host. Furthermore, he is often equated in historical sources with Mercury, a Roman god who has a role in Psychopomp. Odin's role as leader of the Wild Host may be the origin of his name, which literally means "lord of frenzy" or "leader of the possessed". Similar to Norwegian traditions of leaving out food and drink for the Wild Host, in Southern Scandinavia, the last sheaf cut in harvest or grass during haying would be left for Odin's horse or horses around Christmas.
The origins of such practices are debated. Some visitations have clear Christian imagery, such as the Stjärnspel in which the figures are the Three Kings bearing a star, while others lack obvious Christian or foreign influence. The traditions also developed over time, and between regions, with figures such as the julbukk never being homogenous throughout Scandinavia. An early attestation of a practice resembling late guising traditions is given in Þorleifs þáttur jarlsskálds, found in the late 14th century Flateyjarbók manuscript. It tells how one Yule in heathen times, the skald Þorleifur visits the Norwegian ruler Hákon Jarl at a feast to get revenge on him for a previous insult. To avoid being recognised, he goes disguised as a food beggar, wearing a goat beard, placing a leather bag behind it, and using crutches such that he walked on all four legs. When the jarl invites him to eat, he secretly puts the food into the leather bag rather than his mouth, before saying a ritual curse to Hákon which makes him lose hair from his head. Though the disguise traditions are typically attested late, they do closely resemble visitations by figures such as Grýla, groleks and skeklers that may in turn have roots heathen ritual dramas and are found across a large geographical area, including Shetland, Iceland and Sweden. Similar to the julebukk, people dressed as these figures sometimes spoke in reverse speech, in which sound is made while breathing in, and could have a wooden penis as part of the costume. Notably, Grýla is attested in 13th century sources such as the Prose Edda's þulr of troll-women, Íslendinga saga and Sverris saga. Comparisons have also been drawn between these customs, particularly those of straw figures, and Freyr, who in Gunnars þáttr helmings travels around Sweden in winter between farms, partaking in feasts and ensuring good harvests.
The Yule log, Yule boar, Yule singing, and other late customs may have connections to pre-Christian Yule traditions and have been proposed by Simek to indicate the importance of the festival before Christianisation.
It has further been stressed that, even disregarding all speculation about the nature of pre-Christian Yule celebrations, it is very unlikely that Germanic peoples did not have seasonal or midwinter festivals when Christian missionaries arrived.
Today, variants of "Yule" are the main names for Christmas in the North Germanic languages as well as in the Finnic languages. "Yule" and "Yuletide" are alternative names for Christmas and Christmastide in English. Traditionally, Yule or Yuil is also the main name for Christmas in Scots language.
In most forms of Wicca, this holiday is celebrated at the winter solstice as the rebirth of the Horned God, who is viewed as the newborn solstice sun. The method of gathering for this sabbat varies by practitioner. Some have private ceremonies at home, while others do so with their :
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