Vishishtadvaita (IAST ; ) is a school of Hindu philosophy belonging to the Vedanta tradition. Vishishta Advaita means "non-duality with distinctions" and recognizes Brahman (ब्रह्म) as the promordial quality while also acknowledging its Existence multiplicity. This philosophy can be characterized as a form of qualified monism, or a qualified non-dualism. It upholds the belief that all diversity ultimately stems from a fundamental underlying unity.
According to Vishishtadvaita, center of the Brahman (Para Brahman) is the Supreme Lord (Ishvara), who is the supreme person (Paramatman) and has noble attributes such as omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, and omnibenevolence. The universe depends upon God (Ishvara) for its being as well as for its qualities.
Ramanuja, the 11–12th century philosopher and the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy, contends that the Prasthanatrayi ("The three sources"), namely the , the Gita, and the Brahmasutra are to be interpreted in a way that shows this unity in diversity, for any other way would violate their consistency. Vedanta Desika, another major scholar who significantly helped expand the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita, defines Vishishtadvaita using the statement, Aseṣa Chit-Achit Prakāram Brahmaikameva Tatvam : Brahman, as qualified by the sentient and insentient modes (or attributes), is the Ultimate reality.
History
The earliest Vishishtadvaita works are no longer available.
However, the earliest philosophers who are thought to have developed the system are named in Ramanuja's
Vedarthasamgraha: Bodhayana, Dramida, Tanka, Guhadeva, Kapardi, and Bharuci.
Bodhayana is considered to have written an extensive vritti (commentary) on the Purva Mimamsa and . Tanka is attributed with having written commentaries on Chandogya Upanishad and Brahma Sutras. Nathamuni of the ninth century AD, the foremost Acharya of the , collected the Tamil Divya Prabandha, classified them, made the redaction, set the hymns to music, and spread them everywhere. He is said to have received the divine hymns straight from Nammalvar, the foremost of the twelve Alvars, by yogic insight in the temple at Alwar Thirunagari, which is located near Tirunelveli in South India. Yamunacharya renounced kingship and spent his last days in the service of the deity at Srirangam and in laying the fundamentals of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy by writing four basic works on the subject.
Ramanuja is the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy.
Etymology
Viśiṣṭa means most exclusive (not equal/different from the rest).
Key principles
There are three key principles of Vishishtadvaita:
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Tattva: The knowledge of the three real entities, namely jiva (living souls, the sentient), ajiva (the nonsentient) and Ishvara ( Vishnu-Narayana or Parabrahman, Supreme-self and the cause of all manifestations and in-dwelling giver of grace based on Karma).
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Hita: The means of realization, as through bhakti (devotion) and prapatti (self-surrender)
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Purushartha: The goal to be attained, as moksha or liberation from bondage.
Epistemology
Pramanas
Pramana ("sources of knowledge", Sanskrit) refers to factual knowledge obtained through reasoning of any object.
In Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, only the following three pramanas are accepted as valid means of knowledge:
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Pratyaksa — knowledge gained through perception. Perception in this context generally refers to sensory perception. In modern-day usage, this will also include knowledge obtained by means of observation through scientific instruments, since they are considered an extension of perception.
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Anumana — knowledge gained through inference. Inference refers to deductive reasoning and analysis.
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Shabda — knowledge gained by means of shruti. Shruti refers to knowledge gained from scriptures—primarily the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.
Rules of epistemology
There are three rules of hierarchy when there is apparent conflict between the three modes of acquiring knowledge:
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Shabda or Shruti, Pramana occupies the highest position in matters which cannot be settled or resolved by pratyaksa (perception) or by anumana (inference).
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Anumana occupies the next position. When an issue cannot be settled through sensory perception alone, it is settled based on inference, that is, whichever is the more logical argument.
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When pratyaksa yields a definitive position on a particular issue, such a perception cannot be ignored by interpreting Shabda in a way that violates that perception.
Metaphysics
Ontology
Vishishtadvaita ontology outlines three entities: Chit (sentient beings), achit (insentient entities), and
Ishvara (
Parabrahman):
Chit
In Vishishtadvaita, chit is synonymous with
jiva and
atman.
includes all beings with sentience, consciousness, and individual self-awareness. A jiva has both knowledge as its nature and is a knower. This is likened to a flame which illuminates itself and other objects.
It is similar to the
Purusha of Samkhya system.
There are three types of jivas:
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Nitya: eternally free jivas who were never bound in samsara
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Mukta: jivas previously in samsara, but now free
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Baddha: jivas bound in samsara
Characteristics of the
jiva include:
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Being indivisible.
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Being the agent of action and enjoyer of its results
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Being infinite in number and different from each other
Achit
Achit is the world of insentient entities as denoted by matter or, more specifically, the non-conscious Universe. It is similar to the
Prakriti of the Samkhya system.
There are three achit entities.
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Prakrti: primordial cosmic matter and everything that evolves from it. For example, the material world.
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Nitya-vibhuti: transcendental spiritual universe
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Kala: time
Ishvara
Ishvara (denoted by
Vishnu (Narayana)) is the Supreme Cosmic Spirit who maintains complete control over the Universe and all the sentient beings, which together also form the pan-organistic body of Ishvara. The triad of Ishvara, along with the universe and the sentient beings, is Brahman, which signifies the completeness of existence. Ishvara is Parabrahman endowed with innumerable auspicious qualities (Kalyana Gunas). Ishvara is perfect, omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, the creator of the universe, its active ruler, and also its eventual destroyer.
[White Yajurveda 32.3] He is causeless, eternal, and unchangeable—and is yet the material and the efficient cause of the universe and sentient beings. He is both immanent (like whiteness in milk) and transcendent (like a watch-maker independent of a watch). He is the subject of worship. He is the basis of morality and the giver of the fruits of one's Karma. He rules the world with His Maya—His divine power.
Antaryamin
The inner controller (
antar-yāmin) is the thread connecting everything, governing this world, the next, and all beings from within (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.7.3-23).
"He who inhabits water, yet is within water, whom water does not know, whose body water is and who controls water from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal."
"He who inhabits the sun, yet is within the sun, whom the sun does not know, whose body the sun is and who controls the sun from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal" — Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.7.4–14
Brahman
There is a subtle difference between Ishvara and Brahman. Ishvara is the
Saguna Brahman, while
Jiva and jagat are its modes (also secondary attributes), and kalyana-gunas (auspicious attributes) are the primary attributes. The secondary attributes become manifested in the effect state when the world is differentiated by name and form. The kalyana-gunas are eternally manifest.
Brahman is the description of Ishvara when comprehended in fullness—i.e., a simultaneous vision of Ishvara with all his modes and attributes.
Cit and acit are completely dependent on Brahman.
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sharira/shariri ( body/soul);
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dravya/guna ( substance/attribute);
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aṃsi/aṃsa ( whole/part);
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visayi/visaya ( subject/object);
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angi/angā ( organism/organs);
These relationships can be experienced holding Brahman as the father, son, mother, sister, wife, husband, friend, lover and lord. Hence, Brahman is a personal being.
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What does Nirguna Brahman mean?
Ramanuja argues vehemently against understanding Brahman as one without attributes. Brahman is Nirguna in the sense that impure qualities do not touch it. He provides three valid reasons for making such a claim:
Shruti/Shabda Pramana: All shrutis and shabdas denoting Brahman always list either attributes inherent to Brahman or not inherent to Brahman. The shrutis only seek to deny Brahman from possessing impure and defective qualities, which affect the world of beings. There is evidence in the shrutis in this regard. The shrutis proclaim Brahman to be beyond the tri-gunas, which are observed. However, Brahman possesses an infinite number of transcendental attributes, the evidence of which is given in vakhyas like "satyam jnanam anantam Brahma" (Taittiriya Upanishad).
Pratyaksha Pramana: Ramanuja states that "a contentless cognition is impossible". And all cognition must necessarily involve knowing Brahman through the attributes of Brahman.
Anumana Pramana: Ramanuja states that "Nirgunatva" itself becomes an attribute of Brahman on account of the uniqueness of no other entity being Nirguna.
Ramanuja had simplified the relationship between Brahman and soul. According to him, though the soul (Atman) is an integral part of Brahman, it has Jiva.[J.L.Mehta VOl3]
Causality
Like the Samkhya system, Vishishtadvaita upholds the theory of
Satkaryavada as opposed to
Asatkaryavada. Per
satkaryavada, effects are not new entities, but modifications of the cause.
The Vishishtadvaita theory is called Brahma-parinama-vada, with "parinama-vada" meaning the evolution of the effect from the cause. Brahman is both the cause and the effect, but the underlying entity is the same in all forms.
Brahman is assigned two (ways of being the cause):
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— Being the Efficient/ Instrumental cause. For example, a goldsmith is assigned as he acts as the maker of jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery's Instrumental cause.
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— Being the material cause. For example, the gold is assigned as it acts as the material of the jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery's material cause.
According to Vishishtadvaita, the Universe and Sentients always exist. However, they begin from a subtle state and transform. The subtle state is called a causal state, while the transformed state is called the effect state. The causal state is when Brahman is internally not distinguishable by name and form.
It can be said that Vishishtadvaita follows Brahma-Prakara-Parinama Vada. That is to say, it is the modes (Jivas and Jagat) of Brahman which is under evolution. The cause and effect only refer to the pan-organistic body transformation. Brahman, as the Universal Self, is unchanging and eternal.
Brahman, having the subtle (sūkṣma) chit and achit entities as his Śarīra/Prakāra(body/mode) before manifestation, is the same Brahman having the expanded (sthūla) chit and achit entities as Śarīra/Prakāra(body/mode) after manifestation.
Soteriology
The purpose or goal of human existence is called
purushartha. According to the Vedas, there are four goals namely
artha (wealth),
kama (pleasure),
dharma (righteousness) and
moksha (permanent freedom from worldly bondage). According to this philosophy, the first three goals are not an end by themselves but need to be pursued with the ideal of attaining moksha.
Moksha (Liberation)
Moksha means liberation or release from
samsara, the cycle of rebirth. In Vishishtadvaita,
baddha (bounded)
jiva is only self-aware and is in a state of ignorance of
sharira-shariri relationship. Karma loaded with countless births and deaths in
samsara keeps the
jiva from
dharma-bhuta-jnana (attributive consciousness) of God. With the creation process of
Isvara, evolving through different bodies,
jiva attains a human body in which it puts effort to gain the true nature of self and true knowledge of God through
Bhakti and attains a liberated state with the grace of God. Liberation simply means gaining true knowledge of God and serving God in
Vaikuntha (God's abode). In liberation,
jiva keeps its individuality and has infinite knowledge and bliss like
Brahman, but doesn't become one with
Brahman. Unlike Advaita, liberation is only after death (
Videha mukti) and there is no concept of
Jivanmukta.
[Tapasyananda, Swami. Bhakti Schools of Vedanta pg. 54-83]
The Vadakalai school accepts the importance of God's grace in gaining liberation alongside individual effort, similar to how a baby monkey must hold onto its mother. The Tenkalai school sees God's grace as the only requirement for liberation, similar to how a cat will carry a kitten without any effort from the kitten.["Vishishtadvaita." Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 31 Mar. 2015.]
Bhakti as the means of attaining moksha
Bhakti is the sole means of liberation in Vishishtadvaita. Through Bhakti (devotion), a
Jiva ascends to
Vaikuntha, where it continues to delight in His service in a body which is
Satcitananda.
Karma yoga and
Jnana yoga are sub-processes of Bhakti, total surrender, as the devotee acquires the knowledge that the deity is the inner self. A devotee realizes his own state as dependent on, supported by, and led by the deity, who is the Master. One is to lead a life as an instrument of the deity, offering all his thought, word, and deed to the feet of the deity. One is to see the deity in everything and everything in Him. This is the unity in diversity achieved through devotion.
[ ]
Ramanuja accepts Sharanagati, total surrender at the Lord's lotus feet, as the sole means to moksha. Wherein, moksha is defined as liberation from samsara and going to Vaikuntha to serve Narayana (Venkateswara) in a spiritual body. This is a distinguishing feature of this school of philosophy, as both Adi Shankara's Advaita and Madhvacharya's Dvaita accept bhakti for two different concepts of moksha. Ramanuja has supported this opinion with various citations directly from the Vedas, and various incidents that highlight sharanagati as a means to attain personal stay in the realm of Vaikuntha. Observing total surrender at the Lord's feet guarantees moksha at the end of this birth, and in the time between sharanagati and death, the surrendered soul must spend his time performing the nine forms of devotion.
Traditions following Vishishtadvaita
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Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya of southern India
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Sri Ramanandi Sect
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Dāmodariya Vaiśņava sampradaya of Assam
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Swaminarayan sampradaya of Gujarat
See also
External links
