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Tafsir ( ; ) refers to an exegesis, or commentary, of the Quran. An author of a tafsir is a (; plural: ). A Quranic tafsir attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of God's will in Islam.
Principally, a tafsir deals with the issues of Classical Arabic, jurisprudence, and Islamic theology. In terms of perspective and approach, tafsir can be broadly divided into two main categories, namely tafsir bi-al-ma'thur (lit. received tafsir), which is transmitted from the early days of Islam through the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his Sahaba, and tafsir bi-al-ra'y (lit. tafsir by opinion), which is arrived through personal reflection or ijtihad.
There are different characteristics and traditions for each of the tafsirs representing respective schools and doctrines, such as Sunni Islam, Shia Islam, and Sufism. There are also general distinctions between classic tafsirs compiled by authoritative figures of Ulama during the formative ages of Islam, and modern tafsir which seeks to address a wider audience, including the common people.Mir, Mustansir. (1995). "Tafsīr". In John L. Esposito. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
The origins of the written commentary literature on the Quran are later. Some traditions state that the earliest written tafsir was by Mujahid ibn Jabr (d. 722), although this is unlikely and the tafsir that exist in his name were compiled and redacted in later centuries. The earliest commentary on the Quran that survives today was composed by Muqatil ibn Sulayman in the middle of the 8th century, back when the use of poetry, discussion of variants, and the use of the isnad was still rare in Islamic approaches to the Quran. In contrast to later commentaries, the bulk of Muqatil's commentary is made up of brief glosses on what the Quran says instead of offering detailed narratives. Some evidence suggests that Muqatil's commentary was the first one to explore the entire Quran.
Until this age, tafsir had been transmitted orally and had not been collected independently in a book, rather, they had been gathered by muhaddithun (lit. scholars of hadith) in their hadith books, under the topic of tafsir, along with other narrations of Muhammad.Muhsin Demirci, Tefsir Usulü, 120 This indicates that tafsir, in its formative age, used to be a special domain within hadith. Widening of the scope of tafsir and emergence of mufassirun in the age of the successors lead to the development of an independent discipline of tafsir.
The following criteria are in place to ensure a tafsir maintains fidelity.
The most authoritative source of the interpretation is the Quran itself. Interpretation of the Quran employing other Quranic reference is very common because of the close interrelatedness of the verses of the Quran with one another. The Quranic verses explain and interpret one another, which leads many to believe that it has the highest level of authenticity. Many verses or words in the Quran are explained or further clarified in other verses of the Quran. One example of the hadith which extensively employs this source of method is Tafsir al-Mizan by Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i. The authoritative source of method second to the Quran is Hadith, by using hadith of Muhammad to interpret the Quran. In this approach the most important external aids used are the collected oral traditions upon which Muslim scholars based Islamic history and law. Authority of this method is considered established by the statement made in the Quran that Muhammad is responsible for explanation and guidance. While some narratives are of revelation origin, others can be the result of reasonings made by Muhammad. One important aspect of these narratives is their origin. Narratives used for tafsir, and in general, must be of authentic origin ( sahih). Narratives of such origin are considered requisite for tafsir.
Other source of the interpretation includes the accounts of Ṣaḥābah, companions of Muhammad, or tabi‘un, the generation after sahabah, and Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in, the generation after tabi'un. Their authority is based on an account in hadith Sahih Bukhari, which accordingly, Muhammad said:
The best people are those living in my generation, then those coming after them (Tābi‘un), and then those coming after (the third generation).If nothing is found in the Quran or the Hadīth, the commentator has recourse to what the Ṣaḥābah reported about various verses. These are generally considered above personal opinion, because these people grew up with everyday interaction with Muhammad, and had often asked about the meanings of verses or circumstances of their revelation; and they were very knowledgeable in both Arabic literature and Islamic thought. Another non-scripture based source of the interpretation is classical Arabic literature. Classical Arabic poetry and the text of the Quran are two resources which can be used as foundational reference in ascertaining the meaning and signification of the remaining literal and figurative diction of the Quran and its style of expression. Using Arabic poetry for defining words is a long used practice, and very few scholars have not used this source.Muhsin Demirci, Tefsir Tarihi, 128 Less authoritative source of the interpretation is Isra'iliyat, which is the body of narratives originating from Judeo-Christian traditions, rather than from other well-accepted sources. The Isra'iliyat are mostly non-biblical explanatory stories and traditions (Hebrew: midrashim) giving extra information or interpretation about events or individuals recorded in the Hebrew scriptures. Scholars starting with the Sahabah have studied narrative accounts of other Abrahamic religions to further explain and clarify verses, especially parables, in the Quran. While some may be accurate, these narratives are not subject to hadith authenticity criteria, and are generally not favored for use.
Tafsir bi'r-ra'y, or commonly known as tafsir bi-al-diraya, is the method of using one's independent rational reasoning and mind ( ijtihad) to form an opinion-oriented interpretation. The most distinctive feature of tafsir bi-al-diraya is the inclusion of the opinions of the commentator, thus forming the more objective view on Quranic verses. The relative paucity of traditional sources is also a practical reason why the scope of the methodology is augmented. This is considered sanctioned by the Quran itself, as written in the surah Sad verse 29: This method is not interpretation by mere opinion however, but rather opinions must be based on the main sources. Performing Quranic interpretation using solely one's own opinion is believed to be prohibited by some Muslims. This is based on an authenticated hadith of Muhammad which states "He who says (something) concerning the Qur'ân without knowledge, he has taken his seat of fire". However, this hadith can alternatively be interpreted to refer to the importance of first properly studying and learning the Quran before attempting to teach or preach it to others. Accordingly, the method of independent reasoning ( ijtihad) has several qualifications and conditions that need to be satisfied. Due to the nature of orientation toward opinions, this method is rejected by certain scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah, and prohibited by Wahhabi Islamic doctrine. Some important examples of such tafsirs include Anwar al-Tanzil by al-Baydawi and Mafatih al-Ghayb by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi. Some parameters used by these scholars including linguistic resources, historical sources, methodological concepts such as maqasid or socio-cultural environment taken into consideration.
In terms of linguistic resources, literary elements of the Arabic language, including morphology, eloquence, syntax are an integral part of tafsir, as they constitute the basis of understanding and interpretation. Arabic has a systematic way of shaping words so one can know the meaning by knowing the root and the form the word was coined from. If any word can be given a meaning that is compatible with the rules of grammar, Quranic text can be interpreted that way. In terms of historical resources, scholars may choose to interpret verses according to external factors, including their historical context and their place of revelation. Historical context ( Asbab al-nuzul) is particularly important to interpret verses according to how the Quran was revealed, when and under which circumstances, and much commentary was dedicated to history. The early tafsirs are considered to be some of the best sources for Islamic history. Classification of the place of revelation, whether it was revealed in Mecca or Medina, is important as well. This is because in general Meccan surah tend to have an iman (loosely translated as faith) nature that includes believing in Allah, Muhammad, and the day of judgment, whether it be theological foundations or basic faith principles. On the other hand, Medinan surah constitute legislation, social obligations, and constitution of a state.
On the more conceptual level, the idea of maqasid (goals or purpose) can be taken into account. Verses may be interpreted to preserve the general goals of shariah, which may be considered simply as bringing happiness to a person in this life and the hereafter. That way, any interpretation that threatens to compromise the preservation of religion, life, lineage, intellect or property may be discarded or ruled otherwise in order to secure these goals. Further, the socio-cultural environment may also taken into consideration. This includes understanding and interpreting the Quran while taking into account the cultural and social environment to which it has been revealed; or according to the scholars' own time. Often than not, the distinction can be made between the 'amm (general) verses that aimed at universal conditions for Muslims, and khass (specific) verses that applied to specific conditions, time or need. This is considered an integral part of analyzing the universality of the Quran. Scholars usually do not favor to confine verses to a single time interval, but rather interpret according to the needs of their time.
The period of Ibn Taimiyya is sometimes seen as a transition point between the Classical and post-Classical exegesis, due to his unique hermeneutic method.Farhad Daftary The Study of Shi'i Islam: History, Theology and Law Bloomsbury Publishing, 08.01.2014 pp. 104-105 Tafsirs are geneaological, they rely on the core of previous tafsirs. Ibn Taimiyya challenged this core tradition by asserting that the Quran should only be interpreted by the Quran alone or the sunnah. Ibn Kathir was the first who tried to use the hermeneutic method of his teacher ibn Taimiyya.Karen Bauer Gender Hierarchy in the Qur'an: Medieval Interpretations, Modern Responses Cambridge University Press 2015 page 115 By that, it is much more selective and critical compared to earlier Quranic exegesis and features only a few personal remarks.Oliver Leaman The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia Taylor & Francis 2006 page 632Teresa Bernheimer, Andrew Rippin Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices Routledge, 01.03.2013 chapter 11Burge, Stephan R. "Scattered Pearls: Exploring al-Suyī's Hermeneutics and Use of Sources in al-Durr al-manthūr fī’l-tafsīr bi’l-maʾthūr1." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 24.2 (2014): 251-296. Unlike his teacher, he also engaged with an analysis of the exegetical material.Treasures of Knowledge: An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/3-1503/4) (2 Vols): Volume I: Essays / Volume II: Transliteration and Facsimile "Register of Books" (Kitāb Al-kutub), MS Török F. 59; Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Könyvtára Keleti Gyűjtemény (Oriental Collection of the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences). (2019). Niederlande: Brill. p. 281 However, the works of both Ibn Taimiyya and Ibn Kathir were not widespread in the premodern period.Treasures of Knowledge: An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/3-1503/4) (2 Vols): Volume I: Essays / Volume II: Transliteration and Facsimile "Register of Books" (Kitāb Al-kutub), MS Török F. 59; Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Könyvtára Keleti Gyűjtemény (Oriental Collection of the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences). (2019). Niederlande: Brill. p. 281
al-Suyuti (1445–1505) tafsir ( Al-Dur al-Manthur) uses a similar hermeneutic. Unlike ibn Kathir, his work is one of a few completely devoid of any personal comments. Yet, following the approach of Ibn Taimiyya, he is selective about the inclusion of hadiths. However, in contrast to Ibn Taimiyya and Ibn Kathir, his tafsir is without any personal comment. Further, despite using a similar methodology to Ibn Taimiyya and Ibn Kathir, he includes a wider range of hadiths. His commentary was well received and required for advanced imperial Madrasa.Treasures of Knowledge: An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/3-1503/4) (2 Vols): Volume I: Essays / Volume II: Transliteration and Facsimile "Register of Books" (Kitāb Al-kutub), MS Török F. 59; Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Könyvtára Keleti Gyűjtemény (Oriental Collection of the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences). (2019). Niederlande: Brill. p. 281
Not earlier than the mid-nineteenth century, the modern period of tafsir started.Johanna Pink Sunnitischer Tafsir in der modernen islamischen Welt: Akademische Traditionen, Popularisierung und nationalstaatliche Interessen Brill, 11.11.2010 ISBN 9789004185920 p. 29 (German)Görke, Andreas, and Johanna Pink. "Tafsır and Islamic Intellectual History." (2014). The modern approach is marked by a generally critical attitude towards much of the intellectual heritage of Islam, a declared intention to imitate the salaf, and an emphasis on the unity of believers and a unified understanding of Islam. Other features may include, attempts to proof the rationality of the Quranic worldview, compatibility with modern sciences, liberalism, literary criticism, and making the message of the Quran emotional relevant for the believer. Although such modern approaches became a standard only late, their ideas were much earlier present in the Islamicate world.Sariyannis, Marinos. "The limits of going global: The case of “Ottoman Enlightenment (s)”." History Compass 18.9 (2020): e12623. Kadizadeli ( Qādīzādali), a seventeenth-century puritanical reformist religious movement in the Ottoman Empire, shared a lot of ideas with modern Islamic interpretations. Al-Shawkani (1759–1834) has been understood retroperspective by many Muslim scholars as a salafi.
A rationalistic approach, as proposed by Syed Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Abduh attempts to prove that the Quran and modern sciences do not contradict each other.Görke, Andreas, and Johanna Pink. "Tafsır and Islamic Intellectual History." (2014). p. 32 This is close to the tafsir 'ilmi (scientific interpretation of the Quran), which claims that the Quran miraculously predicted scientific discoveries. Although this trend has existed prior to the modern era, its popularity is new. Nontheless, this approach still faces a lot of opposition among Muslims.Görke, Andreas, and Johanna Pink. "Tafsır and Islamic Intellectual History." (2014). p. 33 Yet another approach, represented by scholars such as Amin al-Khuli, aims to decodifies the Quran to understand its impact on the first audience. Accordingly, the focus is not about historical or scientific truths, but about conveying a message through the means of the Quran. Similarly, according to yet another trend, the Quran should not only be understood as for the first Muslims, but also executed as the first Muslims did. Famous adherences to this approach include Sayyid Qutb and Abul A'la Maududi. This approach often goes in hand with an attempt to establish a state based on an idealized Muslim society.
Among Salafis, the hermeneutics of ibn Taimiyya prevail. In the English language, an abridged version of Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓīm ( Tafsir Ibn Kathir), under the editorship of Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, gained widespread popularity, probably due to its salafistic approach but also a lack of alternative translations of traditional tafsirs.Andreas Görke and Johanna Pink Tafsir and Islamic Intellectual History Exploring the Boundaries of a Genre Oxford University Press in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies London p. 478 Similarly, a translation of Tabari's exegetical work has been published only as an abridged version, by Pierre Godé appeared in 1983.Andreas Görke and Johanna Pink Tafsir and Islamic Intellectual History Exploring the Boundaries of a Genre Oxford University Press in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies London p.479
On the other hand, tafsir by Zaydiyyah school of jurisprudence, which espouses the doctrine closest with Sunnis of all Shia sects, produces tafsir resembling Sunni tafsir in its quality. Some Zaidi tafsirs are considered popular among Sunnis as well as shia.
Among the most significant Sunni Sufi tafsirs are:
Edip Yüksel, Layth Saleh al-Shaiban, and Martha Schulte-Nafeh wrote Quran: A Reformist Translation, an English translation and commentary of the Qur'an. Yüksel is a follower of Rashad Khalifa.
Ghulam Ahmed Perwez wrote Mafhoom-ul-Quran, translated into English as Exposition of the Holy Qur'an.
Scholars deeply influenced by the natural and social sciences followed the materialists of Europe or the pragmatists. Under the influence of those secular theories, they declared that the religion's realities cannot go against scientific knowledge. Scientific Exegesis in Malay Qur'anic Commentary, Nor Syamimi Mohd, Haziyah Hussin & Wan Nasyrudin Wan Abdullah, Faculty of Islamic Studies, The National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Starting in the 1970s and 80s, the idea that the Quran possesses scientific facts only discovered by other approaches centuries later became popularized as ijaz (miracle) literature, also called "Bucailleism".
According to author Ziauddin Sardar, the ijaz movement has created a "global craze in Muslim societies", and has developed into an industry that is "widespread and well-funded". Enthusiasts of the movement argue that among the miracles found in the Quran are "everything, from relativity, quantum mechanics, Big Bang theory, black holes and pulsars, genetics, embryology, modern geology, thermodynamics, even the laser and hydrogen fuel cells". Critics argue, verses that proponents say explain modern scientific facts, about subjects such as biology, the origin and history of the Earth, and the evolution of human life, contain fallacies and are unscientific.see also: Malise Ruthven. 2002. A Fury For God. London: Granta. p. 126. As of 2008, both Muslims and non-Muslims have disputed whether there actually are "scientific miracles" in the Quran. Muslim critics of the movement include Indian Islamic theologian Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi, Muslim historian Syed Nomanul Haq, Muzaffar Iqbal, president of Center for Islam and Science in Alberta, Canada, and Egyptian Muslim scholar Khaled Montaser. Taner Edis wrote many Muslims appreciate technology and respect the role that science plays in its creation. As a result, he says there is a great deal of Islamic pseudoscience attempting to reconcile this respect with religious beliefs. This is because, according to Edis, true criticism of the Quran is almost non-existent in the Muslim world. While Christianity is less prone to see its Holy Book as the direct word of God, fewer Muslims will compromise on this idea – causing them to believe that scientific truths must appear in the Quran.
A newer work which incorporates and quotes the work of a multitude of previous scholars and analyzes the relevant Arabic root words (based on all available classic Arabic meanings), and references all relevant passages of the Quran, was done by Abdul Mannan Omar. (2015). 9781942043041, Noor Foundation International Inc.. ISBN 9781942043041
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