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Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in Sui dynasty. Drawing from earlier Mahāyāna sources such as Madhyamaka, founded by Nāgārjuna, who is traditionally regarded as the first patriarch of the school, Tiantai Buddhism emphasizes the "One Vehicle" () doctrine derived from the influential Lotus Sutra, as well as the philosophy of its fourth patriarch, Zhiyi (538–597 CE), the principal founder of the tradition. Brook Ziporyn, professor of ancient and medieval Chinese religion and philosophy, states that Tiantai Buddhism is "the earliest attempt at a thoroughgoing Chinese Buddhism of the Indian Buddhist tradition.". According to Paul Swanson, scholar of Buddhology, Tiantai Buddhism grew to become "one of the most influential Buddhist traditions in China and Japan.".
Tiantai is sometimes also called "The Dharma Flower School" (天台法華宗), after its focus on the Lotus Sutra, whose Chinese title translates to "Subtle Dharma Lotus Flower Sutra". During the Sui dynasty (581–618), the Tiantai school became one of the leading schools of Chinese Buddhism, with numerous large temples supported by emperors and wealthy patrons. The school's influence waned and was revived again in the Tang dynasty by figures like Zhanran, experiencing a second revival period during the Song dynasty. Chinese Tiantai remains a living tradition to this day, being particularly strong in Hong Kong and Zhejiang.
The Japanese Tendai is also an influential tradition which branched off from Tiantai during the 9th century, and played a major role in the development of Japanese Buddhism. A Korean Buddhism, the Cheontae, was also established during the 12th century. Furthermore, Tiantai (and its offshoots) were very influential in the development of other forms of East Asian Buddhism, such as Chan Buddhism and Pure Land..
The sixth century dhyāna master Huiwen () is traditionally considered to be the second patriarch of the Tiantai school. Through studying and meditating on the works of Nāgārjuna, Huiwen is considered by the Tiantai tradition to have awakened to the profound meaning of Nāgārjuna's Madhyamaka.
Huiwen later transmitted his teachings to Zen master Nanyue Huisi (, 515-577), who is traditionally figured as the third patriarch. During meditation, he is said to have realized the "Lotus Samadhi", indicating enlightenment and Buddhahood. He authored the ().
Huisi then transmitted his teachings to Zhiyi (, 538-597), traditionally figured as the fourth patriarch of Tiantai, who is said to have practiced the Lotus Samādhi and to have become enlightened to the meaning of the "Lotus Sutra". The above lineage was proposed by Buddhists of later times and do not reflect the popularity of the monks at that time. 风穴寺与临济宗
Zhiyi's Tiantai school grew into a broad tradition which was able to absorb new influences and develop new creative methods over time. The tradition emphasized both scriptural study and meditative practice, and taught an inclusive array of Buddhist practices, from meditation, to repentance rites and Pure Land practice.
Zhiyi analyzed and organized all Buddhist teachings into a comprehensive system of study and practice. He used the "Lotus Sutra" and its teaching on the One Vehicle and Upaya as the foundation for this system. Zhiyi's classification system culminates with the "Lotus Sutra" (and Nirvana Sutra), which he saw as the most complete teachings. His other innovations include a unique doctrine of a threefold truth (as opposed to the "two truths") along with a new system of Buddhist meditation and cultivation (found in his ). Zhiyi's legacy also owes much to his disciple Guanding, who compiled the masters' "three main works" after Zhiyi's death.
Zhiyi spent much time on Tiantai Mountain (in Zhejiang province), which became a major center for the tradition.Ziporyn, Brook, " Tiantai Buddhism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 Edition) "Tiantai" in modern simplified Chinese means "celestial platform"; however, according to traditional Chinese sources such as Zhanran, the word refers to three stars in a constellation (called Santai, "Three Tiers") which is located just below the Big Dipper. Two other key centers of the early tradition were Yu-Ch'uan monastery in Hubei (founded by Zhiyi himself), which was the site where Zhiyi preached the and the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra, and the Chang'an region, including Mount Wutai.
Zhiyi and the other Tiantai masters of the Sui dynasty era who succeeded him also wrote numerous works on other sutras such as the , , and the Pure Land sutras. Zhiyi's Tiantai doctrine provided a flexible system for the tradition which could be adapted to various Buddhist practices and teachings. Zhiyi's Tiantai school received much imperial support during the Sui dynasty, because of this, it was the largest Buddhist school at the beginning of the Tang and thus suffered because of its close relationship with the house of Sui.William M. Johnston (editor). Encyclopedia of Monasticism: A-L
Following Master Zhiyi, his disciple, Master Guanding played a crucial role in transmitting Tiantai doctrine by recording and organizing Master Zhiyi's works, ensuring they were heard in later times. Guanding also contributed to the protection and continuity of the school by communicating with the Sui government after Zhiyi's passing. He compiled Guoqing Bailu (国清百录), which collected early historical materials of Tiantai School.Shi Sherry (2023). A Study on the General History of Tiantai School in China. University of Peradeniya
During the Tang dynasty (618-907), a key Tiantai figure was Zhanran (711-782), a great teacher and exegete who wrote three important commentaries on Zhiyi's three major works and instructed many influential monks. His writings defended the Tiantai tradition's unity of study and practice against various rival factions. The Tang dynasty era debates between the Faxiang school and the Tiantai school concerning the notion of universal Buddhahood were particularly heated, with the Faxiang school asserting that different beings had different natures and therefore would reach different states of enlightenment, while the Tiantai school argued in favor of the Lotus Sutra teaching of Buddhahood for all beings.
Zhanran's view of Buddha nature was expanded in his ( Diamond Scalpel), which is the key source for the doctrine of "the Buddha-nature of Insentient Beings." This influential doctrine held that since buddha-nature was all-pervasive, even insentient objects like mountains, sounds and smells have buddha-nature.Shuman Chen. Buddha-Nature of Insentient Beings. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, 2nd ed., vol. 1, pp. 208–212, 2014 Thus, according to Zhanran, "every blade of grass, tree, pebble, and particle of dust is perfectly endowed with buddha nature". Zhanran also emphasized the importance of scripture (especially the ), seeing it as having the power to transmit the Tiantai lineage, in contrast to Chan influenced views which saw lineage as transmitted "mind to mind", outside the scriptures.
During the Tang dynasty, the revival of Tiantai School was also related to the involvement of several lay Buddhists scholars. Figures like Liang Su 梁肅 (753-793), a scholar specializing in Tiantai and Confucianism doctrine and a disciple of Zhanran, contributed to the school's development and critiqued doctrines in other schools from a Tiantai perspective. Liangsu wrote numerous works drawing on Tiantai thought. Other important lay scholars included Li’ao (772-841) and Liu Zongyuan.
The Tang era was also a period of increasing syncretism within the Tiantai tradition. One example of this tendency is the synthesis of Tiantai teaching and Chinese esoteric Buddhism taught by Yi Xing (682-727) and his followers. Tiantai monks also became key figures in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism during the Tang. Some of these key Pure Land figures affiliated with Tiantai include Chengyuan (712-802) and Fazhao (fl. 766). Tiantai authors also wrote at least five different Pure Land works during the Tang which were attributed to Zhiyi, including the (a commentary to the Contemplation Sutra) and the ("Discourse on Ten Doubts about Pure Land", T.1961).Rhodes, Robert F. (2017). Genshin's Ōjōyōshū and the Construction of Pure Land Discourse in Heian Japan, p. 34. (Pure Land Buddhist Studies). University of Hawaii Press. .
Ziporyn writes that during the late Tang, Tiantai entered a time of crisis, "an age marked internally by the deterioration of distinctive Tiantai ideas and marked externally by the loss of crucial texts and monastic institutions, especially after the persecution of 845 (a period that saw the increased influence of Chan)."
During this latter Tang period, Huayan and Zen influences became increasingly prominent in some Tiantai lineages. Zhanran's disciple and seventh patriarch Daosui (796–805), and other figures such as Zhiyuan (768–844) and Daochang Ningfen are seen as exhibiting some of these influences. Daosui is important because he was the primary teacher of Saichō, the founder of the Japanese Tiantai tradition (known in Japanese as Tendai). Other Tiantai syncretists include Deshao (881–972) who was associated with the Fayan school branch of Chan. His student Yongming Yanshou (954–974) attempted to unify Tiantai, Huayen and Yogacara teachings under a kind of idealism influenced by Guifeng Zongmi, emphasizing what he called the "one pure formless mind".
Zhanran is a towering figure for the later Tiantai tradition. His commentaries were one of the few Tang sources that survive into the Song dynasty, where they would become the orthodox exegetical works for the Tiantai tradition as it attempted to rebuild after the chaos of the late Tang. However, Zhanran's influence during the Tang should not be overstated. Donner and Stevenson note that Tiantai was a diverse tradition from its very beginnings, with numerous traditions and lineages in different regions absorbing different influences (Chan, Huayan, the Pure Land of Shandao and the Tang esoterica of Amoghavajra). They write "such diversity suggests that we should speak in the plural when we speak of eighth-century Tiantai "tradition", with Zhanran's particular camp constituting but one among a number of semiautonomous lines."
A defining characteristic of the Song period was the emergence of various debates within Tiantai School among various factions. These debates arose due to factors like the influence of the Confucian revival movement, disagreements on Tiantai literature, variations in interpretative traditions, and geographical differences between areas like Tiantai mountain, Qiantang (Hangzhou), and Siming (Ningbo). The debates, sometimes tracing back to Master Yitong, involved issues such as the authenticity of the Commentary on the Contemplation Sutra attributed to Zhiyi and differing understandings of contemplation. Key figures of the Song included Master Yitong (a Korean disciple who transmitted dharma to Zhili and Zunshi), Master Zhiyin (who left Tiantai mountain and founded a new lineage), Master Wu’en (a patriarch of the tradition based in Qiantang), Master Zhili, and Master Zunshi.
The increasing tensions within the Tiantai tradition culminated in a famous debate known as the "home mountain" () vs. "off mountain" () debate. "Off mountain" supporters, as they were later polemically termed, supported the importation of Huayan-Chan doctrines (such as the "one pure mind") into Tiantai, claiming they were originally Tiantai doctrines which were fully compatible with Zhiyi's teaching. "Home mountain" supporters saw the original Tiantai view as different and superior to this new view influenced by Huayan and Chan, especially the works of Zongmi.
The Song era revival began in Zhejiang province, which became a major Tiantai center thanks to the Korean monk Yitong (, 佑忂, 927-988), who took up residence in Ningbo after having studied with master Xiji (919-987) at Mt. Tiantai. His two main disciples, Zhili and Zunshi, were responsible for the revival.Getz, Daniel. "Rebirth in the Lotus: Song Dynasty Lotus Sutra Devotion and Pure Land Aspiration in Zongxiao's Fahua jing xianying lu", Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal (2013, 26: 33-65) New Taipei: Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies The most eminent figure during this period was Patriarch Siming Zhili (960–1028), who wrote various commentaries on Zhiyi's works and defended the so called "Home mountain" view. Zhili's major criticisms included attacking Chan's failure to understand the necessity of the use of words and scriptural study as part of practice as well as criticizing Zongmi's view of a pure mind as the buddha-nature, arguing instead that the "three truths" as taught by Zhiyi are the ultimate reality. For Zhili, mind or consciousness has no special status relative to other types of phenomena, such as physical matter, and thus, all dharmas are metaphysically equal.
Over time, Zhili's "Home mountain" view turned out to be the most influential, and his works became part of the orthodox Tiantai canon during the Song dynasty.Randall L. Nadeau (editor). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions, pp. 106-107. John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Ciyun Zunshi (964–1032) was another important figure in this second Tiantai revival. His work focused on the promotion of rituals for lay Buddhists and worked on converting the populace away from using blood, meat and alcohol for funerary and ancestral rites. Ciyi also promoted the practice of adopting local Chinese deities and spirits into the Buddhist religion as "vassals" or "retainers" and strongly promoted repentance rituals.Randall L. Nadeau (editor). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions, pg. 108 Another key Tiantai figure of the Song was Chegwan (?–971), a Korean monk who wrote an important introduction to Tiantai thought, "A Guide to the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings".A. Charles Muller (trans): "Outline of the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings", compiled by the Goryeo Śramaṇa Chegwan 高麗沙門諦觀 Due to the efforts of these Song era Tiantai figures, the school became one of the dominant forms of Buddhism during the Song, alongside of Chan.Walsh, Michael J. Review of Buddhism in the Sung Edited by Peter N. Gregory and Daniel A. Getz
The Song dynasty also saw the emergence of significant Tiantai School histories. This historical tradition manifested in works like 释门正统 (Shimeng Zhengtong) and the major historical book, 佛祖统纪 (Fozu Tongji) by Master Zhipan. Zhipan's Fozu Tongji, completed in 1296, aimed to re-establish Tiantai School's status and lineage, especially in the context of the prevailing Chan School. Fozu Tongji also preserved valuable historical materials, including records of pure land dharma, other Buddhist schools, and secular events.
Tiantai's relationship with the new Pure Land societies was marked by both influence and tension. The proliferation of independent Pure Land societies, particularly lay-led groups like the White Lotus, challenged the school's authority and prompted a reassessment of their relationship with Pure Land practice. Two significant factors contributed to this reassessment: the emergence of non-Tiantai Pure Land groups and internal debates about Pure Land doctrine and practice. This tension can be seen in Zongxiao's , which outlines a Pure Land lineage outside of Tiantai Buddhism. This acknowledged the growing independence of Pure Land societies, which were increasingly seen as valid religious communities of their own. However, this monastic-led patriarchate was also a strategic effort to maintain monastic influence over lay-led movements that threatened the authority of the traditional establishment.
Doctrinal disagreements within Tiantai circles further complicated the relationship with Pure Land. Figures like Zhili sought to integrate Pure Land teachings with Tiantai meditation practices, emphasizing contemplation of the mind rather than invoking Amitabha or visualizing the Pure Land. While some, such as Tao-yin and Tao-ch'en, defended this approach, others like Yu-yen and Tse-ying rejected it, favoring traditional Pure Land practices centered on invocation and visualization. Zongxiao's reflects the ongoing uncertainty and diversity of view regarding Pure Land's relationship to Tiantai. Rather than synthesizing these conflicting approaches, he presented diverse viewpoints side by side, acknowledging Pure Land's evolving distinct identity. Zhipan later reinforced this view in his "Comprehensive History of the Buddhas and Patriarchs", where he treated Pure Land as a separate tradition rather than fully integrating it into Tiantai orthodoxy.
The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) saw further religious revivals among the major Chinese Buddhist schools, including Tiantai, particularly under the reign of the Buddhist friendly Wanli Emperor. The key figures of the Ming Tiantai Buddhist revival were Baisong Zhenjue (百松真觉, 1538-1589) and Youxi Chuandeng (幽溪传灯, 1554-1628). Both were Chan monks who converted to Tiantai and attempted to revive the tradition. These figures wrote new works, lectured widely, and published Gazetteer. They also commented on the , the most popular sutra of the time, from a Tiantai perspective. They and their students revived ancestral Tiantai monasteries such as Gaoming and Ayuwang.Bingtao Ma. (2022). "In Quest of Orthodoxy: The Historiography of the Tiantai Buddhism in the Late Ming." Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Science, 6(3), 390-394. DOI: 10.26855/jhass.2022.09.015 Chuandeng wrote a work entitled "On Nature Including Good and Evil" which presents his ideas on doctrinal classification, the principle of nature-inclusion, and the practice of the Dharma-gate of inherent evil, attempting to harmonize these with Confucianism and the thought of the .
Another important figure of the late Ming Dynasty was Ouyi Zhixu (1599–1655), one of the Four Eminent Monks of the Wanli Era. Ouyi wrote numerous works that draw heavily on Tiantai thought, and became known as the leading proponent of Tiantai and Pure Land Buddhism during this period.Foulks McGuire, Beverley. Duplicitous Thieves: Ouyi Zhixu’s Criticism of Jesuit Missionaries in Late Imperial China. Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal (2008, 21:55-75) Taipei: Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies 中華佛學學報第二十一期 頁55-75 (民國九十七年)，臺北：中華佛學研究所 ISSN:1017-7132
Tianxi Shoudeng (1607–1675) was one of the most influential teachers and exegetes of Tiantai during the Qing dynasty.
Baojing's dharma heir, Jueguang, helped establish the Guanzong Temple in Hong Kong and transmitted the lineage to numerous monks from Korea, Indonesia, Singapore, Taiwan and mainland China. Tanxuan's heir, Yongxing, founded Xifang Temple in Hong Kong, as well as various temples in Malaysia and the United States (as well as the Texas Buddhist association and its Jade Buddha Temple). Furthermore, other monks from this lineage have helped to reintroduce the Tiantai tradition from Hong Kong back to the rest of mainland China, aiding in the reconstruction of Chinese Buddhism after the reform and opening up period.
During the modern era, Tiantai thought was also influential on some modern Chinese philosophers, like Mou Zongsan (1909 –1995).
The ancient Guoqing Temple, which had suffered from neglect and destruction, was renovated at the behest of Zhou Enlai in 1973. Guoqing Temple is now a major center of Chinese Tiantai Buddhism as well as remains a place of pilgrimage for Japanese Tendai Buddhists.凌海成, Buddhism in China 五洲传播出版社, 2004 p. 20.
Apart from these, there other Mahayana sutras that are especially important in Tiantai. The is also very highly regarded in Tiantai (and is widely quoted by Zhiyi) and it is seen as one of the subtlest sutras and to belong to the class of "complete" teachings. The is also seen as an important sutra, and Zhiyi is known to have written two commentaries on this sutra.Hubbard, Jamie, trans. (2012). Expository Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sutra. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, . p.XIII Other key sutras include the Golden Light Sutra (on which Zhiyi wrote commentaries), the three Pure Land sutras (central for Tiantai Pure Land), and the Brahma's Net Sutra (from which the tradition derives its bodhisattva precepts).
Indeed, the Tiantai school's study makes use of numerous sources. As noted by Donner and Stevenson: "when we examine the early exegetical and textual record, we find that and his successors compiled treatises...for any number of sūtras other than the Lotus", noting that there was no real tendency to prefer any other single sutra.Donner, Neal, and Daniel B. Stevenson. 1993. The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of the First Chapter of Chih-i's Mo-ho chih-kuan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
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There is also another set known as the Five Lesser Tiantai Treatises:
The first contemplation involves moving from the world of provisionality to seeing its emptiness, which is a different process from the second contemplation in which we move beyond emptiness and back into an acceptance of the role of provisional existence. Only in the third contemplation do we find the balance involving the previous two insights based on the Middle Path of the One Mind.
Zhiyi illustrates the idea of a single interpenetrating reality with the simile of the drunk man from the , who perceives the sun as spinning around due to his condition, but in reality there is just one sun and this is confirmed by sober people. However, Zhiyi also points out that even this idea of "one truth" is just a concept, and as such it is ultimately inadequate, since "each and every truth is inexpressible" and "the one truth actually no truth".
According to Brook Ziporyn, the Tiantai school's interfused holism is derived from an extremely important passage from the Chinese translation of the Lotus Sutra which states:
Only a Buddha together with a Buddha knows the ultimate reality of all things: how they appear, what their natures are, what they're made of, what they are capable of, what they are doing, what their causes are, what their conditions are, what their effects are, what their consequences are, and the way in which all these factors from beginning to end are equally ultimate and are ultimately one and the same.Ziporyn argues that this passage points at the idea "that each particular aspect of the world as we see it and feel it is ultimately real, that each one is in fact the Absolute itself, the Buddha-nature, the final fact about the universe" and that "each thing, each appearance, each action" is "the ultimate reality "of " all other things".
This concept emphasizes the interpenetrating nature of reality, where each thought encompasses all phenomena. Jacqueline Stone notes that this reflects a mutually inclusive relationship between every ordinary thought and the entirety of existence. The number three thousand arises from multiplying key Buddhist categories: the ten realms of beings, their mutual inclusion, the ten suchnesses, and the three realms. This doctrine presents a holsitic view of reality where distinctions such as Buddha and ordinary being, subject and object, or sentient and non-sentient are seen as unified and interdependent within each moment of thought.Stone, Jacqueline. Finding Enlightenment in the Final Age, In Lopez Jr. Donald S. (ed.) "Buddhist Scriptures", p. 513. Penguin Books.
Despite this unified view, Zhiyi used various frameworks to describe reality, such as the two truths, the threefold truth, and the ten realms. He also employed the Three Subtle Dharmas (sentient beings, Buddha, and mind) and the Ten Suchnesses to explain this interconnected nature. Zhiyi taught that by observing one's mind and thoughts, one can perceive the entirety of reality and achieve Buddhahood. Drawing from the Avatamsaka Sutra, he emphasized that contemplating the mind allows one to realize the Buddha's dharma fully. He referred to this integrated reality as "the inconceivable mind" (不思議心), which embodies the three thousand dharmas and the threefold truth.
Indeed, Zhiyi outlines four types of oneness: the oneness of the teachings (all teachings of the Buddha are non-contradictory and have one intent), the oneness of the practices (all lead to Buddhahood), the oneness of persons (all will attain Buddhahood), and the oneness of reality. According to Zhiyi, any text which is consistent with these concept teaches "the Subtle Dharma" ().
This doctrine provided a unifying and inclusive framework which could be used to understand all Buddhist teachings. According to Jacqueline Stone, Zhiyi's view of the One Vehicle of the Lotus Sutra is that conventionally, it is "subtle" and "wonderful" in comparison with lesser teachings which are coarse. However this is only true in a relative sense.Stone, Jacqueline (1999). Inclusive and Exclusive Perspectives on the One Vehicle Ultimately, the Lotus Sutra's Subtle Dharma is "not established in comparison to anything else, for there is nothing outside it to which it might be compared". From this absolute perspective, the Lotus Sutra's One Vehicle is "open and integrated" according to Zhiyi, and includes all other Buddhist teachings and skillful means. From the ultimate point of view, all distinctions of "true" and "provisional" are dissolved since all teachings are expressions of the One Vehicle. According to Stone, "this is an egalitarian, inclusive reading, in which all teachings in effect become "true". But from the relative standpoint, a clear distinction is preserved between the "true" and the "provisional"; this is a hierarchical, potentially even exclusive reading, which emphasizes the superiority of the Lotus Sutra over other teachings."
Zhiyi's interpretation of Buddha-nature is structured around three interconnected aspects: Buddha-nature as the conditional cause of Buddhahood, the complete cause, and the direct cause. The conditional cause refers to the inherent potential in sentient beings to practice the Dharma and cultivate conditions that lead to enlightenment. The complete cause emphasizes the intrinsic presence of wisdom in all beings, which, once uncovered, reveals the true nature of reality. Lastly, the direct cause signifies that all beings already participate in the ultimate reality of thusness. Zhiyi's concept of Buddha-nature is closely linked to his theory of the threefold truth, which unites emptiness, conventional reality, and the middle way. While some scholars, such as Ng Yu-Kwan, emphasize a "Middle Way–Buddha Nature" concept in Zhiyi's thought which sees buddha-nature as a positive, dynamic and active force which is present in and non-dual with the world. Scholar scholars like Paul Swanson argue that this active view of buddha-nature is less central in Zhiyi's original texts and instead see Zhiyi's view as consistent with Madhyamaka emphasis on emptiness.Ng Yu-Kwan. 1993. T'ien-t'ai Buddhism and Early M„dhyamika. Tendai Institute of Hawaii Buddhist Studies Program. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. xviii: 254 pp.
The later Tiantai thinker Zhanran is best known for advancing the doctrine of the Buddha-nature of insentient beings, which became central to Tiantai thought. In works such as The Adamantine Scalpel, Zhanran argues that all phenomena, including seemingly lifeless objects like plants, stones, and sounds, possess Buddha-nature. He grounded this view in the Tiantai doctrine of universal inclusion, which teaches that all things, sentient or insentient, are interconnected and interpenetrating. For Zhanran, Buddha-nature is synonymous with Suchness, the ultimate reality that is both unchanging and responsive to conditions. Because Suchness pervades all things without exception, even insentient objects participate in this universal Buddha-nature. This view reflects the influence of Huayan Buddhism, particularly Fazang's theory of "Suchness according with conditions," which asserts that the absolute reality manifests itself in the diversity of phenomena.Shuman Chen. Buddha-Nature of Insentient Beings. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, 2nd ed., vol. 1, pp. 208–212, 2014Asai Endō 浅井円道, "The Lotus Sutra as the Core of Japanese Buddhism Shifts in Representations of its Fundamental Principle." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 41/1: 45–64 © 2014 Nanzan Institute for Religion and CultureStone, Jacqueline Ilyse (2009), Realizing this World as the Buddha Land; in: Teiser, Stephen F.; Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse; eds. Readings of the Lotus Sutra, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 209–236,
Both Zhiyi and Zhanran share a vision of Buddha-nature as pervasive and intrinsic to all reality, an active potential within sentient beings, rooted in their capacity for wisdom and practice. Zhanran expanded on this concept to assert that Buddha-nature is equally present in insentient things, thereby emphasizing the non-duality between beings and their environment. This theory would become the subject of much debate in the history of Tiantai Buddhism.
The idea that the true nature includes both good and evil is mentioned in the Method of Cessation and Contemplation in Mahāyāna (), a 6th century work which may have influenced Zhiyi, who also uses various quotes from the to defend this view. Zhiyi critiqued the idea of a pure nature as the source of all reality found in the Dilun school and the idea that reality arises solely from defiled nature (of the Shelun school). Instead, he argued that the ultimate reality includes all the good and evil of all ten realms. This idea was further defended and developed by later Tiantai figures like Zhanran who taught it as a unique element of Tiantai's doctrine of mutual inclusion. Later figures like Siming Zhili and Youxi Chuandeng further articulated and defended the doctrine of inherent evil.
The Tiantai theories of the interfusion of all realms and nature-inclusion serve as the foundation for the idea that Buddha-nature includes good and evil. Since all things are included within the true nature and all realms (even hell) interpenetrate within any one thought, the buddha-nature cannot be separate from evil (and vice versa). This idea is characterized by inherent inclusion () and the mutual inclusion of good and evil, meaning that good includes evil and evil includes good. Due to the interfusion of all phenomena, Zhiyi affirmed that “one thought of ignorance is the mind of dharma-nature” () and “afflictions are exactly bodhi (awakening).” Zhiyi writes in the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra that "without evil there is no good. turning evil over is precisely the fulfillment of good.” Thus, the concepts of good and evil are relative, since each depends on the other. The complete teaching is the highest kind of good, and from this supreme understanding, samsara and nirvana are fully non-dual. Furthermore, Zhiyi also argues that the distinction between Buddhas and evil sentient beings is not in their nature (which is the same), but in their level of cultivation. Thus, the inherent nature shared by both also includes inherent evil, while only beings have cultivated evil. Even though Buddhas do not give rise to cultivated evil, they can appear in evil forms as skillful means. All of this does not mean that Zhiyi does not promote the cultivation of good or the abandoning of evil however. Rather it means that even the most evil of beings can also become Buddhas by contemplating their own evil (the three poisons) and developing it into good.
The Tiantai panjiao provides a comprehensive hermeneutical and pedagogical schema which provides an interpretive framework for understanding the Buddha's teachings as recorded in the various scriptures, with the purpose of systematizing and reconciling their apparent contradictions. From the Tiantai point of view, the One Vehicle teaching of the Lotus is a "Well-rounded Teaching", which means that it encircles and contains all other coarser teachings, lacking any sharp edges or divisions. Thus, the Tiantai doctrinal schema is a non-hierarchical in which the highest teaching is a holistic and all encompassing one which includes all Buddhist views and practices.
The Fourfold Teachings (化法四教) are called teachings because they are "that which discloses the principle and converts beings" according to Zhiyi. They are:
The Fourfold Method (化儀四教) classifies four different ways that the Buddha uses to guide sentient beings of different capacities. The four are: 化儀四教 Four modes of teaching, Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, 2008
(1) First of all, the Buddha used ordinary or mundane modes of expression, (2) then he individualized his teaching and adapted it to the capacities of his listeners, (3) he further altered it in order to respond to and diagnose the spiritual defects of his hearers, and (4) finally all his teaching was based on the perfect and highest wisdom. The first three are conditioned and finite, whereas the last is inconceivable and ineffable.According to Chappell, the main idea of the Tiantai understanding of the Buddha's method of teaching is the "receptivity-and-response appropriate to a person's capacities", or "communication based on receptivity-and response". According to Chappell this means that "not only the form of the teaching, but also the quest for enlightenment (bodhicitta) arises during an interaction involving a response to the capacities and needs of a person."
The practice of can be understood as comprising two interconnected yet distinct facets. may be described as a state of "cessation" or "stopping". In this stage, the chaotic and disordered thoughts typical of everyday experience are calmed, allowing the mind to rest in tranquility. This mental stillness is both a prerequisite for and a result of the second phase: , which may be translated as "contemplation" or "clear seeing". This contemplative process focuses on observing the mind without discrimination and seeing all phenomena as empty. Embracing the universal truth of emptiness, the practitioner refrains from imposing hierarchies of value on what is observed. This includes rejecting any notion that oneself or any aspect of oneself is exempt from the impartial nature of transience.LaFleur, R. William. Symbol and Yūgen: Shunzei's Use of Tendai Buddhism In "Flowing Traces: Buddhism in the Literary and Visual Arts of Japan," pp. 16-45, edited by James H. Sanford, William R. LaFleur, Masatoshi Nagatomi.
Zhiyi identified two modes of zhiguan practice: seated meditation and the practice of maintaining a calm and insightful mind in daily activities. He favored this comprehensive understanding of zhiguan over the term "chan" (zen), which he considered more restrictive. In practical terms, Tiantai teaches three approaches to cultivating zhiguan: gradual and successive practice, variable practice tailored to individual needs, and perfect and sudden practice, which directly apprehends reality without reliance on progressive stages. Each method reflects different levels of spiritual capacity and conditions.
Zhiyi's magnum opus, the details Zhiyi's extensive meditation curriculum, organized into four key frameworks: the "twenty-five skillful means", the "four samādhis," the "ten objects of contemplation", and the "ten modes of contemplation". The twenty-five skillful means include preparatory practices like precept-keeping, sensory restraint, and associating with spiritual friends. The four samādhis describe different meditative approaches such as constant sitting, constant walking, alternating sitting and walking, and mindfulness during all activities. The ten objects of contemplation focus on various aspects of existence, while the ten modes provide structured ways to contemplate them, such as "contemplating mind as the inconceivable" (the central mode), arousing compassion, dismantling false views, and practicing detachment.
Zhiyi saw the four samadhis as the main pillar of Tiantai meditation practice. These are:
Zhiyi's highest form of zhiguan, the "perfect and sudden" method, emphasizes immediate insight into the true nature of reality. This approach directly contemplates reality as inherently unified, with no distinction between samsara and nirvana, suffering and liberation. In this state, all phenomena are seen as aspects of the Middle Way, where quiescence (cessation) and illumination (contemplation) are simultaneous and inseparable. Through this method, practitioners realize that ultimate reality is fully present in every aspect of experience, requiring no staged progression or sequential cultivation.
The Tiantai school also teaches various other forms of meditation under the rubric of Zhiyi's zhi-guan teaching, such as Anapanasati (). In his Six Dharma Gates to the Sublime, Zhiyi outlines a meditation method based on this clasic Buddhist practice.
Tiantai repentance rituals like the Lotus Repentance, the Invocation of Guanyin Repentance and the Great Compassion Repentance, include both "repentance through activity"—involving prostrations, offerings, Buddhist music, recitation of Mantra—and "repentance through principle", in which practitioners contemplate the emptiness of all phenomena. Zhiyi's Lotus Samadhi Rite of Repentance is the most prominent Tiantai ritual.Stone, Jacqueline; Teiser, Stephen F. Readings of the Lotus Sutra (2009), p. 142. Columbia Readings of Buddhist Literature, Columbia University Press. It blends the two main aspects of repentance into an extensive ritual, encouraging practitioners to purify their minds while deepening their understanding of the Dharma.韋徵儀 (Vicky Wei). "Repentance Prostration: A Millenia-Old Method of Practice", Issue 315 of Life Magazine, Dharma Drum Publishing Corporation According to Daniel Stevenson, "since the end of the sixth century, the Lotus repentance, as set forth in Zhiyi's manual, has constituted one of the mainstays of practice in the Tiantai school, and its ritual forms continue to govern practice in the modern world."
The Lotus Samadhi Rite of Repentance drew inspiration from two key texts: the Meditation on Samantabhadra Sutra and the "Chapter on Peaceful Practices" in the Lotus Sutra. The former emphasizes repenting misdeeds connected to the six senses, while the latter highlights non-discriminatory awareness and formless repentance—a practice where the mind realizes its inherent emptiness, transcending distinctions of virtue and vice. Zhiyi maintained that both "practices of form" and "formless practice" were essential in the earlier stages of cultivation, yet both are ultimately abandoned upon achieving profound realization. In this view, repentance was not merely an act of confession but a process of understanding the interdependent nature of reality.
Stevenson outlines the practice of the Lotus Repentance as follows:
Repentance rituals in the Tiantai tradition evolved to meet the needs of Chinese society, blending Buddhist doctrine with popular beliefs about cosmic retribution and ancestral influence. The practice became central to Chinese Buddhist culture, especially in the form of public repentance ceremonies held during festivals such as the Ghost Festival. These ceremonies often aimed to alleviate the suffering of deceased relatives and were seen as acts of collective merit. Prominent Tiantai figures like Zunshi expanded upon Zhiyi's work by systematizing repentance ceremonies, contributing to the development of distinct rituals such as the Lotus Repentance and the Golden Light Repentance.
Another important Tiantai Pure Land author is Zongxiao (1151–1214), author of the , a major Pure Land anthology. The contains many Tiantai Pure Land writings, including dharanis, treatises, stories, hymns and poems. This work shows the diversity of Tiantai Pure Land practice during the Song. These various texts also indicate that, apart from nianfo recitation, Tiantai Pure Land practice also included visualization meditations based on the Contemplation Sutra, memorization of Pure Land verses (gathas), as well as various rituals.
Perhaps the most influential later Tiantai Pure Land author is Patriach Ouyi Zhixu (1599–1655), author of the Essential Explanations of the Amitābha-sūtra (). Ouyi Zhixu's approach to Pure Land practice emphasizes the dynamic interplay between the "Other power" of Amitabha and the "self-power" of the practitioner's efforts. Central to his teaching is the concept of "sympathetic resonance" (), which is based on the view that all phenomena are manifestations of the One Mind (Dharmakaya). For Ouyi, the most effective way to achieve awakening is through nianfo (Buddha-recollection), a practice which he sees as harmonizing Zen and the scriptural traditions. He presents a threefold model of nianfo practice: (1) contemplating the external Buddha, (2) meditating on one's intrinsic Buddha-nature, and (3) merging the two in simultaneous contemplation. Ouyi asserts that the Buddha's name itself carries the power of Amitabha's enlightened nature, allowing even those with scattered minds to plant seeds of awakening simply by hearing or reciting it. This reflects his conviction that Amitabha's compassionate power transcends individual effort, ensuring all beings can form an affinity with the Pure Land path.
The Lotus Sutra itself emphasizes the merit of reading, reciting, copying, and teaching the text. In accordance with this, Zhiyi established recitation rites that incorporated ritual elements such as offerings, group chanting, prostration, and ritual purification. The devotional aspect of these rites highlights the belief that the Lotus Sutra embodies the Buddha's presence and wisdom. Related practices included visualizations of buddhas and bodhisattvas or even extreme acts of self-sacrifice to demonstrate devotion (such as burning off fingers, or copying the sutra in one's own blood).
During the Song dynasty, Chinese Tiantai also adopted various elements from Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, a development which led to more complex rituals like Tiantai forms of the Shuilu Fahui ceremony and also Yujia Yankou rites.
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