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Resheph (also Reshef and many other variants, see below; Eblaite language , Rašap, , ršp, Egyptian ršpw, , ršp, Rešep̄) was a god associated with war and plague, originally worshiped in Ebla in the third millennium BCE. He was one of the main members of the local pantheon, and was worshiped in numerous hypostases, some of which were associated with other nearby settlements, such as Tunip. He was associated with the goddess Adamma, who was his spouse in Eblaite tradition. Eblaites considered him and the Mesopotamian god Nergal to be equivalents, most likely based on their shared role as war deities.
In the second millennium BCE, Resheph continued to be worshiped in various cities in Syria and beyond. He is best attested in texts from Ugarit, where he was one of the most popular deities. While well attested in ritual texts and theophoric names, he does not play a large role in Ugaritic mythology. An omen text describes him as the doorkeeper of the sun goddess, Shapash, and might identify him with the planet Mars. He was also venerated in Emar and other nearbly settlements, and appears in theophoric names as far east as Mari. The Hurrians also incorporated him into their Hurrian pantheon under the name Iršappa, and considered him a god of commerce. Through their mediation, he also reached the Hittite Empire. He was also introduced to ancient Egypt, possibly by the Hyksos, and achieved a degree of prominence there in the Ramesside period, with evidence of a domestic cult available from sites such as Deir el-Medina. The Egyptians regarded him as a warlike god, but he could also be invoked as a protective healer. He was associated with gazelles and horses, and in art appears as an armed deity armed with a bow, shield and arrows.
References to Resheph from the first millennium BCE are less common. He did not play a large role in Phoenician religion overall, with only one reference to him occurring in texts from Sidon, though he is well attested as a member of the Phoenician pantheon of Cyprus. He was also worshiped by Arameans in Cilicia and in Syria. References to him are also present in the Hebrew Bible, though due to the process of demythologization his name does not always refer to a personified deity. Greeks considered him an equivalent of Apollo, as attested by bilingual inscriptions from Cyprus, though it is not certain if this example of interpretatio graeca was recognized outside this island.
In Ugarit, Resheph's name was written as ršp () in the alphabetic script, and it is variously vocalized by Ugartiologists as Rašp, Rašap or Resheph. The writings Ra-ši-ip and Re-ša-ip appear in texts in standard syllabic cuneiform. Logographic ones are also attested, many of them derived from the various forms of the theonym Nergal: dGÌR.UNU.GAL(.LA), dMAŠ.MAŠ and dKAL (=dLamassu), though it is sometimes questioned if Resheph was necessarily meant in every case when they were used. The use of logograms originally linked to Nergal to represent Resheph is also well attested in texts from Mumbaqat, with identified examples including dGÌR, dIGI and dMAŠ.TAB.BA.
The Hurrian language form of the name had a prothetic vowel affixed to it, resulting in spellings Aršappa and Iršappa, sometimes shortened to Iršap or Irša. The Hurrian variant is also attested in Ugarit as eršp. It has also been proposed that the variant name dRa-sa-pa-an developed through Hurrian influence too, but this view is not universally accepted.
Two forms of the name are attested in texts from ancient Egypt, ršp and ršpw, which might indicate a change in pronunciation occurred at some point, with the former writing reflecting Rashap, Rashp or Reshp and the latter - Rashpu or Reshpu, with a final u making the name easier to pronounce for speakers of Egyptian.
One of the city gates of Ebla was named after Resheph. His two main cult centers in its proximity were seemingly Adanni and Tunip, both of which were relatively small settlements. Alfonso Archi notes that an association with an otherwise insignificant city or cities is a characteristic shared by him with a number of the other major deities of Ebla, namely Dagan (from Tuttul), Hadad (from Halab) and Hadabal (from Hama, Larugadu and Luban), and that it can be assumed in the third millennium BCE none of them owed their popularity to the political influence of their cult centers. However, despite its proximity to Ebla, Resheph is entirely absent from the text corpus from Tell Beydar.
Multiple hypostases of Resheph are attested in Ebla. Most frequently mentioned is the form of this god linked to Adanni. Resheph of gunum is the second most commonly referenced. The precise meaning of this term is a matter of debate, complicated by the fact it is attested almost exclusively in association with Resheph and, much less frequently, with closely linked Adamma. It can be literally translated as “garden”, but it has been suggested it was used to refer to the royal cemetery. However, no texts from Ebla mention Resheph in a funerary context. Maciej M. Münnich suggests that gunum might have been a palatial enclosure for animals, as the associated hypostasis of Resheph received wool as offering particularly often, and references to a bull linked to his cult are known. Resheph of Tunip is also attested, chiefly as a recipient of silver. This hypostasis seemingly had no chapel in the city of Ebla itself, and local dignitaries traveled to venerate him. The royal palace hill ( sa-zaxki) also had a form of Resheph associated with it, "Resheph of the palace", though it has been proposed this title referred to Resheph of Adanni worshiped in a chapel located there rather than to a fully separate hypostasis. Further forms, associated with Daraum (an administrative center of the Eblaite state), Shi’amu, ‘Adatu, Shamutu, Muriku, Armi, Nei, Sarrap and Shaku, are also attested, but they are mentioned less frequently, with most only occurring once. The large number of hypostases is presumed to reflect Resheph's popularity.
Theophoric names invoking Resheph are uncommon in the Eblaite text corpus, which Michael P. Streck explains as a result of his possibly negative characteristics. However, this assumption has been criticized by Maciej M. Münnich, as the attested examples, such as Yitin-Rasap ("Resheph gave") and ‘Ebdu-Rasap ("servant of Resheph"), do not appear to hint as such a perception.
The text VE 806 indicates that Resheph and the Mesopotamian god Nergal were locally regarded as equivalents. This correspondence most likely depended on their shared warlike character. Despite this connection, no writing of Nergal's name was used to represent Resheph in Ebla. Wilfred G. Lambert has noted that a name of Nergal found in a later Mesopotamian god list, dLUGAL-ra-sa-ap (; with the Sumerogram LUGAL possibly standing for an unidentified West Semitic noun rather than lugal or šarrum), “lord Resheph”, uses the spelling of Resheph's name typical for Eblaite language and Old Akkadian texts from the third millennium BCE.
Some evidence exists for an association between Resheph and Ashtart reflecting their shared features, though it is not extensive.
In the standard Ugaritic lists of deities, Resheph follows “auxiliary gods of Baal” (Ugaritic: il t‘ḏr b‘l) and precedes Dadmiš. Manfred Krebernik suggests that she might have been linked to Resheph in some way, possibly as his spouse, and additionally points out her name might be related to the Mesopotamian goddess Tadmuštum, who was associated with the underworld. Nicolas Wyatt argues that based on their placement in lists it can be assumed that they were counted among Baal's divine helpers, but Dennis Pardee maintains that there is no evidence in favor of viewing either of them as closely linked to the weather god.
A dual or plural form of Resheph's name, ršpm, is also attested in ritual texts. Sacrifices to this group of deities took place in the royal palace. Manfred Krebernik presumes it can be connected to his various hypostases attested in Ugaritic texts, such as ršp idrm (meaning unknown), ršp bbt (“Resheph of Bibitta”), ršp mhbn (“Resheph of Mōhāban”), ršp mlk (“ Resheph of Mulukku”), ršp ṣbi (“Resheph of the army”) and ršp ḥgb (possibly “Resheph of locusts”).
Eighty seven inhabitants of Ugarit bearing theophoric names invoking Resheph have been identified in known texts, with four of them being scribes. This makes him the third most common of the deities attested in this context, with El and Baal being more popular and Shapash and Teshub appearing with comparable frequency. The element ḥgb also appears in theophoric names on its own, with twenty five individual examples known, and Wilfred H. van Soldt proposed interpreting it as an attribute of Resheph in this context.
In the text Hauron and the Mare, Resheph is invoked from Bibitta, a city in Anatolia. He is asked to remove poison alongside many other deities. A thematically similar text dealing with removal of serpent venom focused on Shapash invokes him alongside Yarikh in a sequence of pairs of deities, after El and Horon, Baal and Dagan, and Anat and Ashtart.
RS 24.247+, an Ugaritic omen compendium which deals with teratomancy (telling the future based on observation of malformed animal ) in a manner similar to Akkadian Šumma Izbu, states that an animal born with short legs foretells a situation in which “Resheph will consume the progeny”.
It is sometimes assumed that Resheph is not directly attested in ritual texts from Emar. However, Ian Rutherford assumes that the deity referred to as “Nergal of the market (KI.LAM)” or “lord of the market” might be Resheph, which would indicate the name is to be read as Rašap/bel mahiri; a connection to trade is not otherwise known for Nergal, but is well attested for Resheph in Hurrian religion tradition. This identification is also accepted by John Tracy Thames, who notes the epithet presumably reflected his importance in the eyes of a specific section of society, similarly as other titles derived from names of professions. He also proposes that the deity only mentioned under the epithet “Lord of Šagma” in texts from this city might be either Resheph or Erra. Gary Beckman tentatively considers interpreting the city god of Emar, represented by the Sumerogram dNinurta, as Resheph, but he notes caution is advised, and points out Joan Goodnick Westenholz instead suggested that dNIN.URTA in Emar designated a strictly local deity, known as Il Imarī or possibly Ḫamari, “the Emariote god”. It is also sometimes proposed that the deity dU.GUR, who appears alongside Shuwala in a description of a festival, might be Resheph, though this logogram might also be read phonetically as Ugur (a possibility supported by Hurrian sources from the site) or as Nergal.
In addition to the evidence from Emar, Resheph is also attested in texts from Tell Hadidi and Mumbaqat. All three of these sites are located in the proximity of each other, and were culturally similar. Amorite theophoric names invoking Resheph have also been identified in texts from Mari and from the kingdom of Khana. However, in the former only seven examples are attested. The proposal that some Mariote attestations of Nergal in personal names and elsewhere should be understood as references to Resheph are regarded as baseless. There is also no evidence that he was ever actively worshiped further south in Mesopotamia.
Three theophoric names invoking the Hurrian form of Resheph have been identified in the Ugaritic texts. One example is Tagi-Irshappa, “Irshappa is beautiful”. In Alalakh, the evidence for the worship of Resheph is limited to two certain and four dubious theophoric names, with both of the former, Irshappa (either an abbreviation or a personal name identical with the Hurrian variant of the theonym) and Irshapi-andi, being Hurrian.
Manfred Krebernik has suggested that the fact that in a single Ugaritic text Resheph is invoked from Bibitta, elsewhere described as a cult center of the Hurrian god Nupatik, might indicate that he was locally equated with that god. The existence of a connection between them is also accepted by Maciej M. Münnich. Aicha Rahmouni notes that an epithet of Nupatik attested in Hittites sources, dLamassu KI.KAL.BAD, “Nupatik of the army”, is semantically a parallel of Resheph's Ugaritic title, “Resheph of the army”.
The Hurrian form of Resheph was among the deities incorporated into the Hittite pantheon in Samuha and the Hittite Empire capital Hattusa under the influence of Hurrian religion. The evidence for the association between Resheph and trade is also present in Hittite texts, for example a festival tied to the cults of Samuha refers to him with the epithet damkarrassi.
Relatively few epithets were assigned to Resheph in Egyptian sources and the most common of them, “great god” (20 occurrences identified as of 2013) was not exclusive to him and does not highlight any of his individual traits. He was also referred to as “hearer of prayer”, “healer” and “giver of health”, which reflects his association with healing.
Resheph could be depicted either with a fake beard similar to those known from depictions of Osiris, or with a thick natural beard typical for depictions of foreigners. In the latter case he could also be shown with long hair. One of the inscriptions identified on objects originating in Deir el-Medina states that he had a “beautiful face”.
For uncertain reasons, the gazelle was associated with Resheph in Egypt. However, the connection with this animal was not exclusive to him, as it also served as a symbol of Shed. The iconography of these two gods is however otherwise “totally different”. A gazelle head could be depicted on Resheph's white crown in place of an uraeus, though in some cases the latter decoration is attested too. In a single case similar headwear dedicated with a gazelle has been assigned to the god Keserty, who according to Izak Cornelius should be identified as Kothar-wa-Khasis rather than Resheph. An association between Resheph and horses is also attested, and presumably reflected his military prowess. Depictions of Resheph as a charioteer or horseman might represent an exclusively Egyptian tradition.
Multiple references to Resheph being worshiped as a member of a triad which also included Min and Qetesh are known. These three deities are depicted for example on the stele of Ramose. In this context, Resheph was seemingly primarily invoked as a protective deity of specific individuals.
The Leiden Magical Papyrus, dated to the Ramesside Period, mentions a deity identified as the wife of Resheph, Itum, but while attempts have been made to connect her with Adamma or less plausibly with the toponym Edom, her identity remains uncertain.
According to Richard H. Wilkinson, a temple dedicated to Resheph existed in Memphis. Izak Cornelius instead interprets the available evidence as an indication that he was venerated within a sanctuary located in the temple of Ptah.
The worship of Resheph is also attested in Nubia, possibly as a result of religious policies of Amenhotep II. A stele from Wadi es-Sebua, while discovered in a historically Nubian area, was dedicated to Resheph by a certain Mati-Ba’al, presumed to be a merchant traveling through this area rather than a local inhabitant.
Only a single source mentioning Resheph comes from Phoenicia itself. An inscription of king Bodashtart from Sidon mentions a district named after him. However, it is possible that this toponym was not linked to an active cult, and only constituted a relic of past practices. A number of difficult to precisely date Phoenician sculptures from the eighth or seventh century BCE from locations such as Gadir, Huelva, Selinunte and Samos are sometimes interpreted as representations of Resheph, though Melqart is a possibile identification as well.
No evidence for the worship of Resheph in Punic people cities exists. A single text mentions a person bearing a theophoric name invoking him, a certain Abd-Rashap, though the individual in mention originated in Egypt. Most of the references to purported Punic evidence for the worship of Resheph in older scholarly literature are the result of misreading the theonym Eresh ( ‘rš), well attested in theophoric names, or the title “Baal of the cape” ( rš).
Cyprus is an exception from the scarcity of Phoenician attestations of Resheph. Sources from this area are the richest corpus of texts mentioning him from the first millennium BCE. Similarly as the evidence for the worship of Anat from this area this might indicate a continuity of traditions originating in the Bronze Age, when both of these deities were most commonly venerated. The oldest possible reference to Resheph being known to Cypriots is one of the Amarna letters, written by the king of Alashiya, in which the “hand” of a deity represented in cuneiform by the logogram dMAŠ.MAŠ, most likely him rather than Nergal in this context, is blamed for the death of local . This is presumed to be the description of a plague which struck the kingdom. It has also been proposed that an early bronze statue of a horned god from Enkomi might be a representation of Resheph. Later on Resheph's cult center on the island was Idalion. Four dedications to him from the reign of a local ruler, Milkyaton, have been found in this city. A bilingual inscription from Kition dated to 341 BCE mentions Resheph under the epithet ḥṣ, whose interpretation remains uncertain, with proposals such as “arrow” ( hēs) or “street” ( hūs) being present in scholarship. The former view is more common, and finds support in his iconography. Despite Resheph's prominence on Cyprus, the number of theophoric names invoking him from this area is small.
Resheph is also mentioned alongside Kubaba on an Aramaic stela from Tell Sifr, a site located near Aleppo, but due to the state of its preservation it provides little information about his position in the local pantheon and his relation to the aforementioned goddess, though according to Maciej M. Münnich it does make it possible to establish that locally he must have been worshiped by members of high strata of society, capable of commissioning such monuments. Two Aramaic texts from Palmyra mention Resheph, in both cases alongside two goddesses, Ḥirta and Nanaya; he is also attested in the Greek language version of one of them alongside Hera and Artemis.
Aramaic sources do not appear to treat Resheph as a deity of disease, and instead stress his protective character, which might have been the reason behind his association with the Arabian god Ruda, “well disposed”, possibly brought northwards by migrating Arameans tribes from the Syrian Desert. Another possibility is that this portrayal of Resheph was influenced by Ruda in the first place.
Only one theophoric name invoking Resheph has been identified in the Bible, specifically in 1 Chronicles 7:25, where an individual named Resheph is mentioned as a son of Ephraim. While uncommon, the use of a theonym itself as a theophoric name is not unparalleled.
In the Greco-Roman period Resheph apparently ceased to be worshiped in Egypt, with the only references to him including a dedication of Ptolemy III Euergetes from Karnak, litanies listing many deities from Papyrus of Imuthes and Tebtunis Papyrus, unlikely to reflect widespread personal cult, and possibly a small number of theophoric names whose restoration is a matter of dispute among researchers.
It has been proposed that Arsippus, who is mentioned in the third book of Cicero's De Natura Deorum alongside Astronoe (an ordinary Persian language name, here possibly a corruption of Damascius’ Astronoe) as the father of one of the multiple deities named Aesculapius, can be interpreted as a Latiniziation of Resheph. However, this view is not universally accepted.
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