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Rama (; , , ) is a major deity in . He is worshipped as the seventh and one of the most popular of .

(1999). 9788120807624, Motilal Banarsidass. .
In Rama-centric Hindu traditions, he is considered the Supreme Being. Also considered as the ideal man ( maryāda puruṣottama), Rama is the male protagonist of the Hindu epic . His birth is celebrated every year on , which falls on the ninth day of the bright half () of the lunar cycle of (March–April), the first month in the . Ramnavami The Times of India, 2 April 2009.

According to the Ramayana, Rama was born to and his first wife in Ayodhya, the capital of the Kingdom of . His siblings included , Bharata, and . He married . Born in a royal family, Rama's life is described in the Hindu texts as one challenged by unexpected changes, such as an exile into impoverished and difficult circumstances, and challenges of ethical questions and moral dilemmas. The most notable story involving Rama is the kidnapping of Sita by the demon-king , followed by Rama and Lakshmana's journey to rescue her.

The life story of Rama, Sita and their companions allegorically discusses duties, rights and social responsibilities of an individual. It illustrates and dharmic living through model characters.

(2025). 9781440828126, ABC-CLIO. .
(1978). 9788120808669, Motilal Banarsidass. .

Rama is especially important to . He is the central figure of the ancient Hindu epic Ramayana, a text historically popular in the South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures.

(1990). 9781400884551, Princeton University Press. .
(2025). 9789004118652, BRILL. .
His ancient legends have attracted (commentaries) and extensive secondary literature and inspired performance arts. Two such texts, for example, are the Adhyatma Ramayana – a spiritual and theological treatise considered foundational by Ramanandi monasteries, and the – a popular treatise that inspires thousands of festival performances during autumn every year in India..
(2025). 9789971693398, National University of Singapore Press. .

Rama legends are also found in the texts of and , though he is sometimes called Pauma or Padma in these texts, and their details vary significantly from the Hindu versions.

(2025). 9780415939195, Taylor & Francis. .
also mention Rama as the eighth among the 63 .
(2025). 9788125028017, Orient Blackswan. .
(2025). 9780700712816, 9780700712816. .
In Sikhism, Rama is mentioned as twentieth of the twenty-four divine avatars of Vishnu in the in ..


Etymology and nomenclature
Rama is also known as Ram, Raman, Ramar, and Ramachandra (; , ). Rāma is a Vedic Sanskrit word with two contextual meanings. In one context, as found in , as stated by Monier Monier-Williams, it means "dark, dark-colored, black" and is related to the term ratri, which means night. In another context in other texts, the word means "pleasing, delightful, charming, beautiful, lovely". The word is sometimes used as a suffix in different Indian languages and religions, such as Pali in Buddhist texts, where -rama adds the sense of "pleasing to the mind, lovely" to the composite word.
(2025). 9788120811447, Motilal Banarsidass. .

Rama as a first name appears in the Vedic literature, associated with two patronymic names – Margaveya and Aupatasvini – representing different individuals. A third individual named Rama Jamadagnya is the purported author of hymn 10.110 of the in the Hindu tradition. The word Rama appears in ancient literature in reverential terms for three individuals:

  1. , as the sixth of Vishnu. He is linked to the Rama Jamadagnya of the Rigveda fame.
  2. Rama-chandra, as the seventh avatar of and of the ancient Ramayana fame.
  3. , also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

The name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu texts, for many different scholars and kings in mythical stories. The word also appears in ancient and layer of Vedic literature, as well as music and other post-Vedic literature, but in qualifying context of something or someone who is "charming, beautiful, lovely" or "darkness, night".

The Vishnu avatar named Rama is also known by other names. He is called Ramachandra (beautiful, lovely moon),

(1998). 9789519380384, Finnish Oriental Society. .
or Dasarathi (son of Dasaratha), or Raghava (descendant of Raghu, solar dynasty in Hindu cosmology).
(1993). 9788186062104, Allied Publishers. .

Additional names of Rama include Ramavijaya (Javanese), Phreah Ream (), Phra Ram ( and ), Megat Seri Rama (), Raja Bantugan (), Ramar or Raman (), and Ramudu ().

(2025). 9783885870333, Dr. Inge Wezler, Verlag für Orientalistische Fachpublikationen. .
In the Vishnu sahasranama, Rama is the 394th name of . In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self (Atman, soul) in whom delight nondualistically.

The root of the word Rama is ram- which means "stop, stand still, rest, rejoice, be pleased".

According to Douglas Q. Adams, the Sanskrit word Rama is also found in other Indo-European languages such as Tocharian ram, reme, *romo- where it means "support, make still", "witness, make evident".

(2025). 9789042036710, Rodopi. .
The sense of "dark, black, soot" also appears in other Indo European languages, such as *remos or Old English romig.


Legends
This summary is a traditional legendary account, based on literary details from the and other historic mythology-containing texts of and . According to , the figure of Rama incorporates more ancient "morphemes of Indian myths", such as the mythical legends of Bali and Namuci. The ancient sage used these morphemes in his Ramayana as in sections 3.27, 3.59, 3.73, 5.19 and 29.28.
(2025). 9788120831643, Motilal Banarsidass. .


Birth
The ancient epic Ramayana states in the Balakanda that Rama and his brothers were born to Kaushalya and Dasharatha in Ayodhya, a city on the banks of Sarayu River. Valmiki Ramayana, Bala Kanda The Jain versions of the Ramayana, such as the Paumacariya (literally deeds of Padma) by Vimalasuri, also mention the details of the early life of Rama. The Jain texts are dated variously, but generally pre-500 CE, most likely sometime within the first five centuries of the common era.
(2025). 9780199739578, Oxford University Press. .
states that the Ramayana was already famous before it was recast in the Jain Paumacariya poem, dated to the second half of the 1st century CE, which pre-dates a similar retelling found in the Buddha-carita of Asvagosa, dated to the beginning of the 2nd century CE or prior.
(1981). 9788120802643, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. .

was the king of , and a part of the of . His mother's name literally implies that she was from Kosala. The kingdom of Kosala is also mentioned in and , as one of the sixteen of , and as an important center of pilgrimage for Jains and Buddhists.

(1991). 9788170172659, Abhinav Publications. .
(2025). 9780199739578, Oxford University Press. .
, Quote (p. 314): "(...) Kosala was the kingdom centered on Ayodhya, in what is now east-central Uttar Pradesh."
However, there is a scholarly dispute whether the modern Ayodhya is indeed the same as the Ayodhya and Kosala mentioned in the Ramayana and other ancient Indian texts.
(1994). 9780520082564, University of California Press. .

Rama's birth, according to Ramayana, is an incarnation of God ( Vishnu) as human. When demigods went to Brahma to seek liberation from Ravana's menace on the Earth (due to powers he had from Brahma's boon to him), Vishnu himself appeared and said he will incarnate as Rama (human) and kill Ravana (since Brahma's boon made him invincible from all, including God, except humans).

(2025). 9780275990060, Praeger.


Youth, family and marriage to Sita
Rama had three brothers, according to the section of the . These were , Bharata and . The extant manuscripts of the text describes their education and training as young princes, but this is brief. Rama is portrayed as a polite, self-controlled, virtuous youth always ready to help others. His education included the , the as well as the martial arts.

The years when Rama grew up are described in much greater detail by later Hindu texts, such as the Ramavali by . The template is similar to those found for , but in the poems of , Rama is milder and reserved introvert, rather than the prank-playing extrovert personality of Krishna.

In the kingdom of Mithilā, conducted a ceremony at his capital with the condition that she would marry only a prince who would possess the strength to string the ajagava, one of the bows of the deity . Many princes attempted and failed to string the bow. During this time, had brought Rama and his brother Lakshmana to the forest for the protection of a (ritual sacrifice). Hearing about the svayamvara, Vishvamitra asked Rama to participate in the ceremony with the consent of Janaka, who agreed to offer Sita's hand in marriage to the prince if he could fulfil the requisite task. When the bow was brought before him, Rama seized the centre of the weapon, fastened the string taut, and broke it in two in the process. Witnessing his prowess, Janaka agreed to marry his daughter to Rama and invited Dasharatha to his capital. During the homeward journey to Ayodhya, another avatar of Vishnu, , challenged Rama to combat, on the condition that he was able to string the bow of Vishnu, Sharanga. When Rama obliged him with success, Parashurama acknowledged the former to be a form of Vishnu and departed to perform penance at the mountain Mahendra. The wedding entourage then reached Ayodhya, entering the city amid great fanfare.

(2025). 9788180900624, Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. .
Thereafter, Rama lived happily with Sita for twelve (12) years.

Meanwhile, Rama and his brothers were away, , the mother of Bharata and the third wife of King , reminds the king that he had promised long ago to comply with one thing she asks, anything. Dasharatha remembers and agrees to do so. She demands that Rama be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka forest. Dasharatha grieves at her request. Her son Bharata, and other family members become upset at her demand. Rama states that his father should keep his word, adds that he does not crave for earthly or heavenly material pleasures, and seeks neither power nor anything else. He informs of his decision to his wife and tells everyone that time passes quickly. leaves with him to live in the forest, and joins them in their exile as the caring close brother.

9789350721728, Vani Prakashan.


Exile and war
Rama heads outside the Kosala kingdom, crosses Yamuna river and initially stays at Chitrakuta, on the banks of river Mandakini, in the hermitage of sage . During the exile, Rama meets one of his devotee, who happened to love him so much that when Rama asked something to eat she offered her , a fruit. But every time she gave it to him she first tasted it to ensure that it was sweet and tasty as a testament to her devotion. Rama also understood her devotion and ate all the half-eaten bers given by her. Such was the reciprocation of love and compassion he had for his people. This place is believed in the Hindu tradition to be the same as Chitrakoot on the border of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The region has numerous Rama temples and is an important Vaishnava pilgrimage site. The texts describe nearby hermitages of Vedic (sages) such as , and that Rama roamed through forests, lived a humble simple life, provided protection and relief to ascetics in the forest being harassed and persecuted by demons, as they stayed at different .

After ten years of wandering and struggles, Rama arrives at Panchavati, on the banks of river Godavari. This region had numerous demons ( rakshashas). One day, a demoness called Shurpanakha saw Rama, became enamored of him, and tried to seduce him. Rama refused her. Shurpanakha retaliated by threatening . Lakshmana, the younger brother protective of his family, in turn retaliated by cutting off the nose and ears of . The cycle of violence escalated, ultimately reaching demon king , who was the brother of Shurpanakha. Ravana comes to to take revenge on behalf of his family, sees Sita, gets attracted, ask , his uncle, to disguised himself as a magnificent deer to lure Sita, and kidnaps her to his (believed to be modern ).

Rama and discover the kidnapping, worry about Sita's safety, despair at the loss and their lack of resources to take on Ravana. Their struggles now reach new heights. They travel south, meet , marshall an army of monkeys, and attract dedicated commanders such as who was a minister of Sugriva.

(2025). 9780520227033, University of California Press. .
Meanwhile, Ravana harasses Sita to be his wife, queen or goddess. Sita refuses him. Ravana gets enraged and ultimately reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately Rama prevails, kills Ravana and forces of evil, and rescues his wife Sita. They return to Ayodhya.


Post-war life
The return of Rama to Ayodhya was celebrated with his coronation. It is called Rama pattabhisheka, and his rule itself as Rama rajya described to be a just and fair rule.
(1986). 9788120800786, Motilal Banarsidass. .
(2025). 9781139828420, Cambridge University Press. .
It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness with diyas (lamps), and the festival of is connected with Rama's return.

Upon Rama's accession as king, rumours emerge that Sita may have gone willingly when she was with Ravana; Sita protests that her capture was forced. Rama responds to public gossip by renouncing his wife and asking her to prove her chastity in front of (fire). She does and passes the test. Rama and Sita live happily together in Ayodhya, have twin sons named Kusha and Lava, in the Ramayana and other major texts. However, in some revisions, the story is different and tragic, with Sita dying of sorrow for her husband not trusting her, making Sita a moral heroine and leaving the reader with moral questions about Rama. In these revisions, the death of Sita leads Rama to drown himself. Through death, he joins her in afterlife.

(2025). 9781442649729, University of Toronto Press. .
Depiction of Rama dying by drowning himself and then emerging in the sky as a six-armed incarnate of is found in the Burmese version of Rama's life story called Thiri Rama.
(2025). 9781315313955, Taylor & Francis. .


Variations
Rama's legends vary significantly by the region and across manuscripts. While there is a common foundation, plot, grammar and an essential core of values associated with a battle between good and evil, there is neither a correct version nor a single verifiable ancient one. According to Paula Richman, there are hundreds of versions of "the story of Rama in , Southeast Asia and beyond".
(2025). 9788126018093, Sahitya Akademi. .
The versions vary by region reflecting local preoccupations and histories, and these cannot be called "divergences or different tellings" from the "real" version, rather all the versions of Rama story are real and true in their own meanings to the local cultural tradition, according to scholars such as Richman and Ramanujan.

The stories vary in details, particularly where the moral question is clear, but the appropriate ethical response is unclear or disputed.

(1991). 9783447031165, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. .
For example, when demoness disguises as a woman to seduce Rama, then stalks and harasses Rama's wife Sita after Rama refuses her, is faced with the question of appropriate ethical response. In the Indian tradition, states Richman, the social value is that "a warrior must never harm a woman". The details of the response by Rama and Lakshmana, and justifications for it, has numerous versions. Similarly, there are numerous and very different versions to how Rama deals with rumours against Sita when they return victorious to Ayodhya, given that the rumours can neither be objectively investigated nor summarily ignored. Similarly the versions vary on many other specific situations and closure such as how Rama, Sita and Lakshmana die.
(1993). 9780791413814, State University of New York Press. .

The variation and inconsistencies are not limited to the texts found in the Hinduism traditions. The Rama story in the Jain tradition also show variation by author and region, in details, in implied ethical prescriptions and even in names – the older versions using the name Padma instead of Rama, while the later Jain texts just use Rama.

(2025). 9788126018093, Sahitya Akademi. .


Dating and historicity
In some Hindu texts, Rama is stated to have lived in the that their authors estimate existed before about 5000 BCE. Archaeologist H. D. Sankalia, who specialised in Proto- and Ancient Indian history, find such estimate to be "pure speculation". A few other researchers place Rama to have more plausibly lived around 1250 BCE, based on regnal lists of Kuru and Vrishni leaders which if given more realistic reign lengths would place Bharat and Satwata, contemporaries of Rama, around that period. Sankalia dates various incidents of the Ramayana to have taken place as early as 1,500 BCE.
(1982). 9780333903902, Macmillan Publishers. .

The composition of Rama's epic story, the , in its current form is usually dated between 8th and 4th century BCE.

(2025). 9788176252263, Swarup & Sons. .
According to John Brockington, a professor of Sanskrit at Oxford known for his publications on the Ramayana, the original text was likely composed and transmitted orally in more ancient times, and modern scholars have suggested various centuries in the 1st millennium BCE. In Brockington's view, "based on the language, style and content of the work, a date of roughly the fifth century BCE is the most reasonable estimate".
(2025). 9781317390633, Routledge. .

often highlight that Rama's narrative reflects not only religious beliefs but also societal ideals and moral principles. They explore the possibility of Rama being a composite figure, embodying virtues and qualities valued in ancient . This perspective underscores the Ramayana's role as both a religious scripture and a cultural artifact, illustrating how legends like Rama's have shaped India's collective consciousness and ethical frameworks over centuries. Ariel Glucklich about this, quoted: "... Rama serve not only as historical narratives but also as moral and spiritual teachings, shaping cultural identity and religious beliefs in profound ways."

9780865476950, North Point Press. .


Iconography and characteristics
Rama iconography shares elements of avatars of Vishnu, but has several distinctive elements. He has two hands, holds a bana (arrow) in his right hand, while he holds the dhanus (bow) in his left. The most recommended icon for him is that he be shown standing in pose (thrice bent "S" shape). He is shown black, blue or dark color, typically wearing reddish color clothes. Rama is often accompanied with his brother on his left side while his consort always on his right, both of golden-yellow complexion. His monkey companion stands nearby with folded arms. The group can be accompanied with Rama's brothers Bharata and Shatrughna too.
(1993). 9788120808782, Motilal Banarsidass. .

The Ramayana describes Rama as a charming, well built person of a dark complexion ( varṇam śyāmam) and long arms ( ājānabāhu, meaning a person whose middle finger reaches beyond their knee). In the section of the epic, describes Rama to when she is held captive in , to prove to her that he is indeed a messenger from Rama. He says:


Philosophy and symbolism
Rama's life story is imbued with symbolism. According to , the life of Rama as told in the Indian texts is a masterpiece that offers a framework to represent, conceptualise and comprehend the world and the nature of life. Like major epics and religious stories around the world, it has been of vital relevance because it "tells the culture what it is". Rama's life is more complex than the Western template for the battle between the good and the evil, where there is a clear distinction between immortal powerful gods or heroes and mortal struggling humans. In the Indian traditions, particularly Rama, the story is about a divine human, a mortal god, incorporating both into the exemplar who transcends both humans and gods.
(2025). 9788120831643, Motilal Banarsidass. .

As a person, Rama personifies the characteristics of an ideal person ( purushottama). He had within him all the desirable virtues that any individual would seek to aspire, and he fulfils all his moral obligations. Rama is considered a maryada purushottama or the best of upholders of Dharma.

(2008). 9788126516292, Wiley India Pvt. Limited. .

According to Rodrick Hindery, Book 2, 6 and 7 are notable for ethical studies.

(1978). 9788120808669, Motilal Banarsidass. .
The views of Rama combine "reason with emotions" to create a "thinking hearts" approach. Second, he emphasises through what he says and what he does a union of "self-consciousness and action" to create an "ethics of character". Third, Rama's life combines the ethics with the aesthetics of living. The story of Rama and people in his life raises questions such as "is it appropriate to use evil to respond to evil?", and then provides a spectrum of views within the framework of Indian beliefs such as on and .
(1978). 9788120808669, Motilal Banarsidass. .

Rama's life and comments emphasise that one must pursue and live life fully, that all three life aims are equally important: virtue (dharma), desires (), and legitimate acquisition of wealth (). Rama also adds, such as in section 4.38 of the , that one must also introspect and never neglect what one's proper duties, appropriate responsibilities, true interests, and legitimate pleasures are.


Literary sources

Ramayana
The primary source of the life of Rama is the Sanskrit epic Ramayana composed by . The epic had many versions across India's regions. The followers of believe that an older version of the , the Mula-Ramayana, previously existed.
(1992). 9780791407967, SUNY Press. .
The Madhva tradition considers it to have been more authoritative than the version by .

Versions of the Ramayana exist in most major Indian languages; examples that elaborate on the life, deeds and divine philosophies of Rama include the epic poem , and the following vernacular versions of Rama's life story:

(2025). 9780816075645, Infobase Publishing. .

The epic is found across India, in different languages and cultural traditions. "The Oral Tradition and the many 'Ramayanas'" , Moynihan @Maxwell, of Syracuse University's South Asian Center


In Tamil literature
There are several references of the Ramayana in early Tamil literature even before the ( Kamba Ramayanam), which seems to indicate that the story of the text was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the 12th century. Tamil Sangam texts like the , ,
(1999). 9780231115629, Columbia University Press. .
and the mention scenes of the Ramayana and figures such as Rama, Sita, the ten-faced demon (Ravana), and monkeys. The Tamil epic also mentions Rama as the avatar of Vishnu, who measured the three worlds and destroyed the city of Lanka.


Adhyatma Ramayana
Adhyatma Ramayana is a late medieval text extolling the spiritualism in the story of . It is embedded in the latter portion of Brahmānda Purana, and constitutes about a third of it. The text philosophically attempts to reconcile in god Rama and with , over 65 chapters and 4,500 verses.
(1989). 9788120804432, Motilal Banarsidass. .

The text represents Rama as the (metaphysical reality), mapping all attributes and aspects of Rama to abstract virtues and spiritual ideals. Adhyatma Ramayana transposes Ramayana into symbolism of self study of one's own soul, with metaphors described in Advaita terminology. It influenced the popular Ramcharitmanas by , and inspired the most popular version of Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya.

(1991). 9783447031165, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. .
This was also translated by Thunchath Ezhuthachan to , which lead the foundation of Malayalam literature itself.


Ramacharitmanas
The Ramayana is a Sanskrit text, while retells the Ramayana in , commonly understood in by speakers of the several . Ramacharitamanasa was composed in the 16th century by . Ramcharitmanas , Encyclopaedia Britannica (2012) The popular text is notable for synthesising the epic story in a framework, wherein the original legends and ideas morph in an expression of spiritual (devotional love) for a personal god.

Tulsidas was inspired by Adhyatma Ramayana, where Rama and other figures of the Valmiki Ramayana along with their attributes ( saguna narrative) were transposed into spiritual terms and abstract rendering of an Atma (soul, self, ) without attributes ( reality). According to Kapoor, Rama's life story in the Ramacharitamanasa combines mythology, philosophy, and religious beliefs into a story of life, a code of ethics, a treatise on universal human values. It debates in its dialogues the human dilemmas, the ideal standards of behaviour, duties to those one loves, and mutual responsibilities. It inspires the audience to view their own lives from a spiritual plane, encouraging the virtuous to keep going, and comforting those oppressed with a healing balm.

(1995). 9789068317015, Peeters Publishers. .

The Ramacharitmanas is notable for being the Rama-based play commonly performed every year in autumn, during the weeklong performance arts festival of . The "staging of the Ramayana based on the Ramacharitmanas" was inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as one of the Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity.


Yoga Vasistha
Yoga Vasistha is a Sanskrit text structured as a conversation between young Prince Rama and sage who was called as the first sage of the school of Hindu philosophy by . The complete text contains over 29,000 verses. The short version of the text is called Laghu Yogavasistha and contains 6,000 verses. The exact century of its completion is unknown, but has been estimated to be somewhere between the 6th century CE to as late as the 14th century CE, but it is likely that a version of the text existed in the 1st millennium CE.

The text consists of six books. The first book presents Rama's frustration with the nature of life, human suffering and disdain for the world. The second describes, through the figure of Rama, the desire for liberation and the nature of those who seek such liberation. The third and fourth books assert that liberation comes through a spiritual life, one that requires self-effort, and present cosmology and metaphysical theories of existence embedded in stories. These two books are known for emphasising free will and human creative power.Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 2, Cambridge University Press, , pages 252–253 The fifth book discusses meditation and its powers in liberating the individual, while the last book describes the state of an enlightened and blissful Rama.

(1984). 9780873959551, State University of New York Press.

Yoga Vasistha is considered one of the most important texts of the philosophy.

(2025). 9780893892272, Himalayan Institute Press. .
The text, states David Gordon White, served as a reference on for medieval era Advaita Vedanta scholars.
(2025). 9780691143774, Princeton University Press.
The Yoga Vasistha, according to White, was one of the popular texts on Yoga that dominated the Indian Yoga culture scene before the 12th century.


Upanishad
Rama is the central character in three of the fourteen Vaishnava Upanishads – Rama Rahasya Upanishad, Rama Tapaniya Upanishad and Tarasara Upanishad.
(1997). 9788120814677, Motilal Banarsidass. .

Rama Rahasya Upanishad talks about is largely recited by , who states that Rama is identical to the supreme unchanging reality , same as major Hindu deities, and the means to and liberation. The text also includes sections on suggesting the Bīja mantra based on Rama. The Rama Tapaniya Upanishad, emphasis is on the Rama mantra Rama Ramaya namaha. It presents him as equivalent to the Atman (soul, self) and the (Ultimate Reality). Tarasara Upanishad describes Rama as Paramatman, Narayana and supreme Purusha (cosmic man), the ancient , the eternal, the liberated, the true, the highest bliss, the one without a second.


Other major texts
Other important historic Hindu texts on Rama include Bhusundi Ramanaya, Prasanna Raghava, and Ramavali by Tulsidas.
(1979). 9780896840508, Motilal Banarsidass. .
The Sanskrit poem Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhatti, who lived in in the seventh century CE, is a retelling of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the language.
9780814727782, Clay Sanskrit Library.
Another historically and chronologically important text is Raghuvamsa authored by .. Its story confirms many details of the Ramayana, but has novel and different elements. It mentions that Ayodhya was not the capital in the time of Rama's son named Kusha, but that he later returned to it and made it the capital again. This text is notable because the poetry in the text is exquisite and called a Mahakavya in the Indian tradition, and has attracted many scholarly commentaries. It is also significant because Kalidasa has been dated to between the 4th and 5th century CE, suggesting that the Ramayana legend was well established by the time of Kalidasa.

The has a summary of the Ramayana. The Jainism tradition has extensive literature of Rama as well, but generally refers to him as Padma, such as in the Paumacariya by Vimalasuri. Rama and Sita legend is mentioned in the Jataka tales of Buddhism, as (Tale no. 461), but with slightly different spellings such as Lakkhana for Lakshmana and Rama-pandita for Rama.

(2025). 9781107418516, Cambridge University Press (Reprinted: 2014). .

Rama appears in the namely the and (as an avatar of ), the (as form of ), the (as form of Vishnu), the , , (as Rama), the and the .

(1988). 9780520908833, University of California Press. .
Additionally, the Rama story is included in the of the , which has been a part of evidence that the is likely more ancient, and it was summarised in the Mahabharata epic in ancient times.
(1973). 9780226846644, University of Chicago Press. .

Rama and Sita appears as the central character in , which is attributed to their worship and describes them to be the . Apart from other versions of Ramayana, many 14th-century saints such as , Tulsidas and have their works written about Rama's life. While Ramananda's Sri Ramarchan Paddati explains the complete procedure to worship Sita-Rama, Tulsidas's has devotional hymns dedicated to Rama including Shri Ramachandra Kripalu. Ramananda through his conversation with disciple Surasurananda in Vaishnava Matabja Bhaskara, explains about the worship of Rama, Sita and Lakshmana, and answers the 10 most prominent questions related to .

(1970). 9788193783948, Uttar Pradesh Hindi Sansthan. .
's , is a love poem which describes Rama sending message to Sita through a swan.


Worship and festivals
, , England]]As part of the , Rama became focus of the Ramanandi Sampradaya, a community founded by the 14th-century North-Indian poet-saint . This community has grown to become the largest Hindu community in modern times.
(2006). 9780791467084, SUNY Press. .
This Rama-inspired movement has championed social reforms, accepting members without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion since the time of Ramananda who also accepted Muslims wishing to leave Islam.
(1995). 9780791424124, SUNY Press. .
. Traditional scholarship holds that his disciples included later Bhakti movement poet-saints such as , , and others.
(1999). 9788190227261 .
Ram is also the supreme god in the Niranjani Sampradaya, that primarily worships Rama and Sita. The sampradaya was founded by the 16th-century North-Indian poet-saint Haridas Niranjani."Mahārāj Śri Haridās Jī Kī Vaṇī." In Mahārāj Śri Haridās Jī Kī Vaṇī, edited by Swami Mangaldas. Jaipur: Nikhil Bharatiya Niranjani Mahasabha, 1931.

represents Rama as the (metaphysical reality), mapping all saguna (attributes) of Rama to the nirguna nature (ultimate unchanging attributeless virtues and ideals, in the Adhyatma Ramayana). The text raises every mundane activity of Rama to a spiritual or transcendent level, the story into symbolism, thus instructing the seeker to view his or her own life through the symbolic vision for his soul, where the external life is but a metaphor for the eternal journey of the soul in Advaita terminology. Adhyātma, Sanskrit-English Digital Lexicon, Koeln University, Germany (2011)


Hymns
List of prayers and hymns dedicated to Rama are:

  • Jai Shri Ram – Greeting or Salutation in dedicated to Rama.
  • Jai Siya Ram – Greeting or Salutation in dedicated to Sita and Rama.
  • Siyavar Ramchandraji Ki Jai – Greeting or Salutation dedicated to Sita and Rama. The hymns introduces Rama as Sita's husband.
  • Sita-Ram-Sita-Ram – The maha-mantra is as follows:

  • Hare Rama Rama Rama, Sita Rama Rama Rama.
  • Ramashatanamastotra – The hymn dedicated to Rama, which contains 108 names of Rama, mentioned in the Yaga Kanda of .
    (2025). 9788171102822, Parimal Publications. .
  • Ramastotram – The hymn dedicated to Rama, mentioned in the Vilasa Kanda of Ananda Ramayana.
  • Ramaraksha Mahamantra – The hymn dedicated to Rama, mentioned in the Janma Kanda of Ananda Ramayana.
  • Ramasahasranamastotra – The hymn dedicated to Rama, mentioned in the Rajya Kanda of Ananda Ramayana.
  • Rama Kavacha – The hymn dedicated to Rama, mentioned in the Manohar Kanda of Ananda Ramayana.
  • – The devotional poem has prayers dedicated to Rama, including Shri Ramachandra Kripalu, which is as follows:

  • Janaki Mangal – This verse describes the episode of Sita and Rama's marriage and has hymns and prayers dedicated to them.
  • Thumak Chalat Ram Chandra – This devotional song describes the beauty of Rama's face during his childhood.
  • Hare Rama Hare Krishna – This hymn is dedicated to both Rama and , and is as follows:


Festivals

Rama Navami
is a spring festival that celebrates the birthday of Rama. The festival is a part of the spring , and falls on the ninth day of the bright half of month in the traditional . This typically occurs in the Gregorian months of March or April every year.

The day is marked by recital of Rama legends in temples, or reading of Rama stories at home. Some Vaishnava Hindus visit a temple, others pray within their home, and some participate in a or with music as a part of puja and . The community organises charitable events and volunteer meals. The festival is an occasion for moral reflection for many Hindus. Some mark this day by (fasting) or a visit to a river for a dip.

The important celebrations on this day take place at , , (), , Kodandarama Temple, Vontimitta and . Rathayatras, the chariot processions, also known as Shobha yatras of Rama, Sita, his brother and , are taken out at several places. In Ayodhya, many take a dip in the sacred river Sarayu and then visit the Rama temple.

Rama Navami day also marks the end of the nine-day spring festival celebrated in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh called (Festival of Spring), that starts with . Some highlights of this day are Kalyanam (ceremonial wedding performed by temple priests) at on the banks of the river in Bhadradri Kothagudem district of , preparing and sharing Panakam which is a sweet drink prepared with jaggery and pepper, a procession and Rama temple decorations.


Ramlila and Dussehra
Rama's life is remembered and celebrated every year with dramatic plays and fireworks in autumn. This is called , and the play follows the or more commonly the . It is observed through thousands of Rama-related performance arts and dance events, that are staged during the festival of in . After the enactment of the legendary war between Good and Evil, the Ramlila celebrations climax in the (Dasara, Vijayadashami) night festivities where the giant grotesque effigies of Evil such as of demon Ravana are burnt, typically with fireworks.
(2025). 9781851096367, ABC-CLIO. .

The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in historically important Hindu cities of , , , , and Madhubani – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The epic and its dramatic play migrated into southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE, and Ramayana based Ramlila is a part of performance arts culture of Indonesia, particularly the Hindu society of , , and .

(2025). 9780195168327, Oxford University Press. .


Diwali
In some parts of India, Rama's return to Ayodhya and his coronation is the main reason for celebrating , also known as the Festival of Lights.

In , Diwali is marked as a special occasion and celebrated with a lot of fanfare. It is observed as a national holiday in this part of the world and some ministers of the Government also take part in the celebrations publicly. Just like Vijayadashmi, Diwali is celebrated by different communities across India to commemorate different events in addition to Rama's return to Ayodhya. For example, many communities celebrate one day of Diwali to celebrate the Victory of Krishna over the demon .


Vasanthotsavam
is an annual Seva celebrated in to celebrate the arrival of spring season. Abhishekam - specifically called Snapana Thirumanjanam (Holy bathing), is performed to the utsava murthy and his consorts on all the three days. On the third day, abhishekam is performed to the idols of Rama, , and along with and . Procession of the consecrated idols are taken in a procession in the evening on all the three days.


Temples
Temples dedicated to Rama are found all over India and in places where Indian migrant communities have resided. In most temples, the iconography of Rama is accompanied by that of his wife and brother . In some instances, is also included either near them or in the temple premises.
(2025). 9780595412624, iUniverse. .

Hindu temples dedicated to Rama were built by the early 5th century, according to copper plate inscription evidence, but these have not survived. The oldest surviving Rama temple is near (Chhattisgarh), called the Rajiva-locana temple at near the river. It is in a temple complex dedicated to Vishnu and dates back to the 7th-century with some restoration work done around 1145 CE based on epigraphical evidence.

(1998). 9789004102606, BRILL. .
The temple remains important to Rama devotees in the contemporary times, with devotees and monks gathering there on dates such as .
(1994). 9780300062175, Yale University Press. .

Some of the Rama temples include:


Outside Hinduism

Jainism
In , the earliest known version of Rama story is variously dated from the 1st to 5th century CE. This Jain text credited to shows no signs of distinction between - (sects of Jainism), and is in a combination of Maharashtri and Sauraseni languages. These features suggest that this text has ancient roots.
(1993). 9780791413814, State University of New York Press. .

In Jain , people continue to be reborn as they evolve in their spiritual qualities, until they reach the Jina state and complete enlightenment. This idea is explained as cyclically reborn triads in its Puranas, called the , and evil .

(2025). 9788126018093, Sahitya Akademi. .
Rama, Lakshmana and evil Ravana are the eighth triad, with Rama being the reborn Baladeva, and Lakshmana as the reborn Vasudeva. Rama is described to have lived long before the 22nd Jain Tirthankara called . In the Jain tradition, Neminatha is believed to have been born 84,000 years before the 9th-century BCE .

Jain texts tell a very different version of the Rama legend than the Hindu texts such as by Valmiki. According to the Jain version, Lakshmana (Vasudeva) is the one who kills Ravana (Prativasudeva). Rama, after all his participation in the rescue of Sita and preparation for war, he actually does not kill, thus remains a non-violent person. The Rama of Jainism has numerous wives as does Lakshmana, unlike the virtue of monogamy given to Rama in the Hindu texts. Towards the end of his life, Rama becomes a Jaina monk then successfully attains followed by . His first wife Sita becomes a Jaina nun at the end of the story. In the Jain version, Lakshmana and Ravana both go to the hell of Jain cosmology, because Ravana killed many, while Lakshmana killed Ravana to stop Ravana's violence. Padmapurana mentions Rama as a contemporary of , 20th of Jainism.


Buddhism
The Dasaratha-Jataka (Tale no. 461) provides a version of the Rama story. It calls Rama as Rama-pandita.

At the end of this Dasaratha-Jataka discourse, the Buddhist text declares that the Buddha in his prior rebirth was Rama:

While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Rama and make him an incarnation of in a previous life, the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an of .

(1987). 9781349086429, Palgrave Macmillan. .
(1997). 9781851681303, Oxford: Oneworld. .
The literature of Buddhism is generally dated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium BCE, based on the carvings in caves and Buddhist monuments such as the stupa.
(2025). 9780415939195, Taylor & Francis. .
The 2nd-century BCE stone carvings on Bharhut stupa, as told in the Dasaratha-Jataka, is the earliest known non-textual evidence of Rama story being prevalent in ancient India.
(2025). 9780198037637, Oxford University Press. .


Sikhism
Rama is mentioned as one of twenty four divine incarnations of in the , a composition in traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh. The discussion of Rama and Krishna avatars is the most extensive in this section of the secondary Sikh scripture.
(2025). 9780198060024, Oxford University Press. .
The name of Rama is mentioned more than 2,500 times in the Guru Granth Sahib and is considered as along with the .


Influence and depiction
Rama's story has had a major socio-cultural and inspirational influence across and .

Few works of literature produced in any place at any time have been as popular, influential, imitated and successful as the great and ancient Sanskrit epic poem, the Valmiki Ramayana.
– Robert Goldman, Professor of Sanskrit, University of California at Berkeley.

According to Arthur Anthony Macdonell, a professor at Oxford and Boden scholar of Sanskrit, Rama's ideas as told in the Indian texts are secular in origin, their influence on the life and thought of people having been profound over at least two and a half millennia.

(2025). 9789351181002, . .
Their influence has ranged from being a framework for personal introspection to cultural festivals and community entertainment. His life stories, states Goldman, have inspired "painting, film, sculpture, puppet shows, shadow plays, novels, poems, TV serials and plays."


Paintings
Rama and Sita have inspired many forms of performance arts and literary works. Madhubani paintings are charismatic art of Bihar, and are mostly based on religion and mythology. In the paintings, Hindu gods like Sita-Rama are in center with their marriage ceremony being one of the primary theme.
(2017). 9788170171560, Abhinav Publications. .
Rama's exile, Sita's abduction and Lanka war have also been depicted in the .


Music
Rama is a primary figure in , of the Mithila region. The folk music genre Lagan, mentions about the problems faced by Rama and Sita during their marriage.


Hindu arts in Southeast Asia
Rama's life story, both in the written form of Sanskrit Ramayana and the oral tradition arrived in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.
(2025). 9780674028746, Harvard University Press. .
Rama was one of many ideas and cultural themes adopted, others being the Buddha, the Shiva and host of other Brahmanic and Buddhist ideas and stories.
(2025). 9780674028746, Harvard University Press. .
In particular, the influence of Rama and other cultural ideas grew in , , , , , and .

The Ramayana was translated from Sanskrit into old Javanese around 860 CE, while the performance arts culture most likely developed from the oral tradition inspired by the Tamil and Bengali versions of Rama-based dance and plays. The earliest evidence of these performance arts are from 243 CE according to Chinese records. Other than the celebration of Rama's life with dance and music, Hindu temples built in southeast Asia such as the near (Java), and at the near (East Java), show extensive reliefs depicting Rama's life.Jan Fontein (1973), The Abduction of Sitā: Notes on a Stone Relief from Eastern Java , Boston Museum Bulletin, Vol. 71, No. 363 (1973), pp. 21–35 The story of Rama's life has been popular in Southeast Asia.

In the 14th century, the Ayutthaya Kingdom and its capital Ayuttaya was named after the Hindu holy city of Ayodhya, with the official religion of the state being Theravada Buddhism.

(2025). 9780470402573, John Wiley & Sons. .
, Quote: "The name of the capital city Ayuttaya derives from the Hindu holy city Ayodhya in northern India, which is said to be the birthplace of the Hindu god Rama."
(2025). 9780786490332, McFarland. .
Thai kings, continuing into the contemporary era, have been called Rama, a name inspired by Rama of Ramakien – the local version of Sanskrit Ramayana, according to Constance Jones and James Ryan. For example, King (1853–1910) is also known as Rama V, while King who succeeded to the throne in 2016 is called Rama X.
(2025). 9780816075645, Infobase Publishing. .


Culture
In the region, mainly in and , people use salutations such as Jai Shri Ram, Jai Siya Ram and Siyavar Ramchandraji Ki Jai. Ramanandi ascetics (called Bairagis) often use chants like "Jaya Sita Ram" and "Sita Ram". The chants of Jai Siya Ram is also common at religious places and gatherings, for example, the . It is often used during the recital of Ramayana, , especially the .

In , call themselves Ramsa, which means Children of Ram. In , tattooed their whole body with name of Ram.

Rama has been considered as a source of inspiration and has been described as Maryāda Puruṣottama Rāma (). He has been depicted in many films, television shows and plays.

(1994). 9780851704555, British Film Institute. .


In popular culture

Films
The following people portrayed Rama in the film adaptation of Ramayana.

  • Prithviraj Kapoor portrayed him in the 1934 Bengali film Seeta.
    (1996). 819006021X, Eminence Designs. . 819006021X
  • portrayed him in the 1943 Hindi film Ram Rajya.
  • N. T. Rama Rao portrayed him in the 1958 Tamil film Sampoorna Ramayanam.
  • N. T. Rama Rao Jr portrayed him in the 1997 Telugu film Ramayanam.
  • portrayed him in the 1960 Malayalam film Seeta.
  • portrayed him in the 1968 Telugu film .
  • portrayed him in the 1997 Hindi film .
  • Nikhil Kapoor and voiced him in the 1992 animated film .
  • voiced him in the 2010 animated Hindi film .
  • Nandamuri Balakrishna portrayed him in the 2011 Telugu film Sri Rama Rajyam.
  • Kunal Kapoor voiced her in the 2016 Hindi animated film .
  • portrayed him in the 2023 Hindi film .


Television
The following people portrayed Rama in the television adaptation of Ramayana.

  • portrayed him in the 1987 series Ramayan and the 1998 series .
  • Siraj Mustafa Khan portrayed him in the 1997 series Jai Hanuman.
  • portrayed him in the 2000 series Vishnu Puran and the 2002 series Ramayan.
  • Gurmeet Choudhary portrayed him in the 2008 series Ramayan.
  • Debargo Sanyal voiced him in the 2008 America animated series Sita Sings the Blues.
  • portrayed him in the 2011 series Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev.
  • portrayed him in the 2012 series Ramayan and the 2015 series Sankat Mochan Mahabali Hanumaan.
  • portrayed him in the 2012 mini-series Ramleela – Ajay Devgn Ke Saath.
  • portrayed him in the 2015 series Siya Ke Ram.
  • portrayed him in the 2019 series Ram Siya Ke Luv Kush.
  • portrayed him in the 2019 series Shrimad Bhagwat Mahapuran.
  • portrayed him in the 2021 web series Ramyug.
  • and portrayed him in the 2022 series Jai Hanuman – Sankatmochan Naam Tiharo.
  • portrayed him in the 2024 series .
  • Pavan Sharma portrayed him in 2024 DD National series Kakabhushundi Ramayan- Anasuni Kathayein.


YouTube
  • Tarun Chandel portrayed in 2024 YouTube series Valmiki Ramayan


Others
  • Rama's life struggles were portrayed in the "Sita-Rama episode" of the 2023 play, Prem Ramayan.
  • Shri Ram Janki Medical College and Hospital in , Bihar.


See also


Notes

Citations

Sources

  • (1984). 9780873959551, State University of New York Press. .


Bibliography


Further reading
  • (1989). 9788170172512, Abhinav Publications. .
  • (2025). 9780649461806, Trieste Publishing Pty Limited.


External links
Ajagava bow: Significance and symbolism]
     

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