Öljaitü, also known as Mohammad-e Khodabandeh (24 March 1282 – 16 December 1316), was the eighth Ilkhanate ruler from 1304 to 1316 in Tabriz, Iran. His name 'Öjaitü' means 'blessed' in the Mongolian language and his last name 'Khodabandeh' means 'God's servant' in the Persian language.
He was the son of the Ilkhan ruler Arghun, brother and successor of Mahmud Ghazan (5th successor of Genghis Khan), and great-grandson of the Ilkhanate founder Hulegu Khan.
Early life
Öljaitü was born to
Arghun and his third wife,
Keraites Christian Uruk Khatun on 24 March 1282 during his father's viceroyalty in Khorasan.
He was given the name Khar-banda (mule driver)
at birth, raised as
Buddhism and later baptised in 1291,
receiving the name Nikolya (
Nicholas) after Pope Nicholas IV.
["Arghun had one of his sons baptized, Khordabandah, the future Öljeitu, and in the Pope's honor, went as far as giving him the name Nicholas", Histoire de l'Empire Mongol, Jean-Paul Roux, p. 408.] However, according to
Tarikh-i Uljaytu (History of Oljeitu), Öljeitu was at first known as "Öljei Buqa", and then "Temüder", and finally "Kharbanda".
Various c. Same source also mentions that it rained when he was born, and the delighted Mongols called him by the Mongolian name Öljeitu (Өлзийт), meaning auspicious. He was later converted to
Sunni Islam along with his brother Ghazan. Like his brother, he changed his first name to the Islamic name
Muhammad.
He participated in battles involving Ghazan's fight against Baydu. After his brother Ghazan's accession to throne, he was appointed as viceroy of Khorasan.[Rashīd al-Dīn Ṭabīb, Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, ed. Muḥammad Raushan and Muṣṭafa Mūsavī (Tehran: Alburz, 1994), p. 1324] after hearing news of his death he sought to eliminate potential rivals to throne. First such act was taken against Prince Alafrang, son of Gaykhatu. He was killed by an emissary of Öljaitü on 30 May 1304.
Reign
He arrived in the Ujan plain on 9 July 1304
and was crowned on 19 July 1304.
Rashid al-Din wrote that he adopted the name Oljeitu following Yuan emperor Öljeitu Temür enthroned in
Khanbaliq. His full regnal title was Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad Khudabanda Öljaitü Sultan. Upon accession, he made several appointments, such
Kutlushah to the post of commander-in-chief of Ilkhanate army, Rashid al-Din and Sa'd al-Din Savaji as his viziers on 22 July 1304. Another appointment was Asil al-Din, son of Nasir al-Din Tusi as his father's successor to head Maragheh observatory. Another political decision was revoking
Kerman from
Qutlugh-Khanids Qutb al-Din Shah Jahan on 21 April 1304. Öljaitü appointed his father-in-law and uncle Irinjin as viceroy of Anatolia on 27 June 1305.
He received ambassadors from the Yuan dynasty (19 September 1305), Chagatai Khanate (in persons of Chapar, son of Kaidu and Duwa, son of Baraq) and Golden Horde (8 December 1305) in the same year, establishing an intra-Mongol peace.
He undertook an expedition to Herat against the Kart dynasty ruler Fakhr al-Din in 1306, but succeeded only briefly; his emir Danishmend was killed during the ambush. He started his second military campaign in June 1307 towards Gilan Province. It was a success thanks to combines forces of emirs like Sutay, Esen Qutluq, Irinjin, Sevinch, Chupan, Toghan and Mu'min. Despite initial success, his commander-in-chief Kutlushah was defeated and killed during the campaign, which paved way for Chupan to rise in ranks. Following this, he ordered another campaign against Kartids, this time commanded by the late emir Danishmend's son Bujai. Bujai was successful after a siege from 5 February to 24 June 1306, finally capturing the citadel. A corps of Frankish mangonel specialists is known to have accompanied the Ilkhanid army in this conquest.[Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, p. 315.]
Another important event of 1307 was the completion of the Jami al-Tawarikh by Rashid al-Din on 14 April 1307.
An important change in administration happened in 1312 when Öljaitü's vizier Sa'd al-Din Savaji was arrested on charges of corruption and executed on 20 February 1312. He was soon replaced by Taj al-Din Ali Shah, who would head the Ilkhanate civil administration until 1323. Another victim of the purge was Taj al-Din Avaji, a follower of Sa'd al-Din. Öljaitü also finally launched a last campaign against the Mamluks, in which he was unsuccessful, though he reportedly briefly took Damascus.[Stevens, John. The history of Persia. Containing, the lives and memorable actions of its kings from the first erecting of that monarchy to this time; an exact Description of all its Dominions; a curious Account of India, China, Tartary, Kermon, Arabia, Nixabur, and the Islands of Ceylon and Timor; as also of all Cities occasionally mentioned, as Schiras, Samarkand, Bokara, &c. Manners and Customs of those People, Persian Worshippers of Fire; Plants, Beasts, Product, and Trade. With many instructive and pleasant digressions, being remarkable Stories or Passages, occasionally occurring, as Strange Burials; Burning of the Dead; Liquors of several Countries; Hunting; Fishing; Practice of Physick; famous Physicians in the East; Actions of Tamerlan, &c. To which is added, an abridgment of the lives of the kings of Harmuz, or Ormuz. The Persian history written in Arabick, by Mirkond, a famous Eastern Author that of Ormuz, by Torunxa, King of that Island, both of them translated into Spanish, by Antony Teixeira, who lived several Years in Persia and India; and now rendered into English.] It was when Mamluk emirs, former governor of Aleppo—Shams al-Din Qara Sonqur and governor of Tripoli—al-Afram defected to Öljaitü. Despite extradition requests from Egypt, Ilkhan invested Qara Sonqur (now under the new name Aq Sonqur) with the governorate of Maragheh and al-Afram with Hamadan.
Meanwhile, relations between other Mongol realms were getting heated. The new khan of Golden Horde, Ozbeg sent an emissary to Öljaitü, renewing his claims to Azerbaijan on 13 October 1312. Öljaitü also supported the latter during Chagatai-Yuan war in 1314, annexing Southern Afghanistan after expelling Qara'unas.
Öljaitü's reign is also remembered for a brief effort at Ilkhanid invasion of Hejaz. Humaydah ibn Abi Numayy, arrived at the Ilkhanate court in 1315, Ilkhan on his part provided Humaydah an army of several thousand and Arabs under the command of Sayyid Talib al-Dilqandi to bring the Hijaz under Ilkhanid control. He also planned to exhume the bodies of the caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ( radiallahtaalaanhu ) from their graves in Medina. However, soon after the expedition passed Basra they received news of Ilkhan's death, and a large part of the army deserted. The remainder – three hundred Mongols and four hundred Arabs – were crushed by a horde of four thousand Bedouin led by Muhammad ibn Isa (brother of Muhanna ibn Isa) in March 1317.[al-Najm Ibn Fahd, Itḥāf al-wará, 3/155–156]
Death
He died in
Soltaniyeh on 17 December 1316,
having reigned for twelve years and nine months. Afterwards, Rashid al-Din Hamadani was accused of having caused his death by poisoning and was executed. Oljeitu was succeeded by his son Abu Sa'id.
Religion
Öljaitü had been professing Buddhism, Christianity and Islam throughout his life. After succeeding his brother, Öljeitu became influenced by Shi'a theologians
Allamah Al-Hilli and Maitham Al Bahrani.
Although another source indicates he converted to Islam through the persuasions of his wife.
[The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, p. 197.] Upon Al-Hilli's death, Oljeitu transferred his teacher's remains from
Baghdad to a domed shrine he built in Soltaniyeh. Later, alienated by the factional strife between the Sunnis, Oljeitu changed his school of thought to Shi'a Islam in 1310.
[Ann K.S. Lambton, Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia, ed. Ehsan Yarshater, (Bibliotheca Persica, 1988), p. 255.] At some point, he even considered converting to
Tengrism in early 1310.
Mamluk historian
al-Safadi mentioned in his biographical dictionary
Aʻyan al-ʻAsr that Oljeitu had once again became Sunni in the last few years before his death in the Ramadan of 716
Hijri year.
Legacy
He oversaw the end of construction of city of
Soltaniyeh on Qongqur-Oleng plains in 1306. In 1309, Öljeitu founded a
Dar al-Sayyedah ("
Sayyed's lodge") in Shiraz,
Iran, and endowed it with an income of 10,000 dananeer a year. His tomb in
Soltaniyeh, 300 km west of
Tehran, remains the best known monument of Ilkhanid
Persia. According to Ruy González de Clavijo, his body was later exhumed by
Miran Shah.
Relations with Europe
Trade contacts
Trading contacts with European powers were very active during the reign of Öljeitu. The Genoese had first appeared in the capital of
Tabriz in 1280, and they maintained a resident Consul by 1304. Oljeitu also gave full trading rights to the
Venice through a treaty in 1306 (another such treaty with his son Abu Said was signed in 1320).
[Jackson, p. 298.] According to
Marco Polo, Tabriz was specialized in the production of gold and silk, and Western merchants could purchase precious stones in quantities.
Military alliance
After his predecessors
Arghun and
Ghazan, Öljeitu continued diplomatic overtures with the West, and re-stated Mongol hopes for an alliance between the Christian nations of Europe and the Mongols against the Mamluks, even though Öljeitu himself had converted to Islam.
1305 embassy
In April 1305, he sent a Mongol embassy led by Buscarello de Ghizolfi to the French king Philip IV of France,
[Mostaert and Cleaves, pp. 56–57, Source ] Pope Clement V, and Edward I of England. The letter to Philip IV, the only one to have survived, describes the virtues of concord between the Mongols and the Franks:
He also explained that internal conflicts between the Mongols were now over:
This message reassured the European nations that the Franco-Mongol alliance, or at least attempts towards such an alliance, had not ceased, even though the Khans had converted to Islam.[Jean-Paul Roux, in Histoire de l'Empire Mongol : "The Occident was reassured that the Mongol alliance had not ceased with the conversion of the Khans to Islam. However, this alliance could not have ceased. The Mamelouks, through their repeated military actions, were becoming a strong enough danger to force Iran to maintain relations with Europe.", p. 437.]
1307 embassy
Another embassy was sent to the West in 1307, led by Tommaso Ugi di Siena, an Italian described as Öljeitu's
ildüchi ("Sword-bearer").
[Peter Jackson, p. 173.] This embassy encouraged Pope Clement V to speak in 1307 of the strong possibility that the Mongols could remit the
Holy Land to the Christians, and to declare that the Mongol embassy from Öljeitu "cheered him like spiritual sustenance".
[Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, p. 171.] Relations were quite warm: in 1307, the Pope named John of Montecorvino the first Archbishop of
Khanbalik and Patriarch of the Orient.
[Foltz, p.131]
European nations accordingly prepared a crusade, but were delayed. A memorandum drafted by the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitallers Guillaume de Villaret about military plans for a Crusade envisaged a Mongol invasion of Syria as a preliminary to a Western intervention (1307/8).[Peter Jackson, p. 185.]
Military operation 1308
Byzantine Emperor
Andronicus II gave a daughter in marriage to Oljeitu and asked the Ilkhan's assistance against growing the power of the
Ottoman Turks. In 1305, Oljeitu promised his father in law 40,000 men, and in 1308 dispatched 30,000 men to recover many Byzantine towns in
Bithynia and the Ilkhanid army crushed a detachment of
Osman I.
[I. Heath, Byzantine Armies: AD 1118–1461, pp. 24–33.]
1313 embassy
On 4 April 1312, a Crusade was promulgated by Pope Clement V at the Council of Vienne. Another embassy was sent by Oljeitu to the West and to Edward II in 1313.
[Peter Jackson, p. 172.]
That same year, the French king Philippe le Bel "took the cross", making the vow to go on a Crusade in the Levant, thus responding to Clement V's call for a Crusade. He was however warned against leaving by Enguerrand de Marigny,
[Jean Richard, "Histoire des Croisades", p. 485.] and died soon after in a hunting accident.
[Richard, p. 485.]
A final settlement with the Mamluks would only be found when Oljeitu's son signed the Treaty of Aleppo with the Mamluks in 1322.
Family
Öljaitü had thirteen consorts with several issues, albeit only one surviving son and daughter:
-
Terjughan Khatun, daughter of Lagzi Güregen (son of Arghun Aqa) and Baba Khatun
-
Dowlandi Khatun (died 1314) married on 30 September 1305 to Amir Chupan
-
Eltuzmish Khatun (m. 1296, d. 10 October 1308, buried in Dome of Sultaniyeh
-
Bastam (1297 - d. 15 October 1309 near Sahneh) - married Uljay Qutlugh Khatun on 12 January 1305 (named after Bayazid Bastami)
-
Bayazid (d. 19 April 1308) (named after Bayazid Bastami)
-
Muhammad Tayfur (b. 3 December 1306) (named after Bayazid Bastami)
-
Sati Beg Khatun - with Eltuzmish Khatun, married firstly on 6 September 1319 to Amir Chupan, married secondly in 1336 to Arpa Ke'un, married thirdly in 1339 to Suleiman Khan;
-
Hajji Khatun, daughter of Chichak, son of Sulamish and Todogaj Khatun;
-
Qutlughshah Khatun (betrothed 18 March 1305, m. 20 June 1305), daughter of Irinjin,
-
Bulughan Khatun Khurasani (m. 23 June 1305, d. 5 January 1310 in Baghdad), daughter of Tasu and Mangli Tegin Khatun (widow of Ghazan Khan)
-
Kunjuskab Khatun (m. 1305), daughter of Shadi Kurkan and Orqudaq Khatun (widow of Ghazan Khan)
-
Oljatai Khatun (m. 22 March 1305, died 4 October 1315) - half-sister of Hajji Khatun (widow of Arghun Khan), daughter of Sulamish and Todogaj Khatun
-
Soyurghatmish Khatun, daughter of Amir Husayn Jalayir, and sister of Hasan Buzurg;
-
Qongtai Khatun, daughter of Timur Kurkan;
-
Dunya Khatun, daughter of al-Malik al-Malik Najm ad-Din Ghazi, ruler of Mardin;
-
Adil Shah Khatun, daughter of Amir Sartaq, the amir-ordu of Bulughan Khatun Buzurg;
-
Sulayman Shah (d. 10 August 1310)
-
Despina Khatun, daughter of Andronikos II Palaiologos;
-
Tugha Khatun, a lady accused of having an affair with Demasq Kaja;
Öljaitü also allegedly had an additional son, Ilchi who was claimed as an ancestor of the Arghun dynasty and Tarkhan dynasty dynasties of Afghanistan and India.[Mahmudul Hasan Siddiqi, History of the Arghuns and Tarkhans of Sind, 1507-1593 (1972), p. 249.]
See also
Notes
Citations
-
Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Facts on File, Inc. .
-
() page 87
-
Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010,
-
Jackson, Peter, The Mongols and the West, Pearson Education,
-
Jean-Paul Roux, Histoire de l'Empire Mongol, Fayard,
-
