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Kültepe (Turkish language: ), also known under its ancient name Kaneš (Kanesh, sometimes also Kaniš/Kanish) or Neša (Nesha), is an archaeological site in Kayseri Province, Turkey. It was already a major settlement at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC (Early Bronze Age), but it is world-renowned for its significance at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC (Middle Bronze Age). The archaeological site consists of a large mound (also known as höyük, tepe or tell), and a lower city, where a kārum (the word for trading districtHow to translate the term kārum is debated. Cécile Michel has argued against the translation 'colony' or 'trade diaspora'. She notes: "The word kārum is often translated as 'colony' or 'trading colony' by scholars; however this term is not satisfactory since it often evokes some kind of domination of a state over a foreign territory (Michel 2014). In the Old Assyrian texts, the kārum refers both to the part of the town where merchants were established and the institution represented by the assembly of the merchants who administered that center, and which had an office and officials. There is no word or expression in English that fits this definition, unlike the French expression comptoir commercial. Thus, ... the expression 'commercial settlement' could used when referring to the area where merchants were established and carried out their activities.) was established in the beginning of the 2nd Millennium BC. So far, 23,500 cuneiform tablets recovered from private houses constitute the largest collection of private texts in the ancient Near East. In 2014, the archaeological site was inscribed in the Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey.
The site is divided into two main areas: the circular mound (tepe, höyük) and the lower town to its northeast. The mound was inhabited (with discontinuity) from the Early Bronze Age through the Roman Empire, while the lower town was occupied only from the last decades of the third millennium to the early sixteenth century BCE. The lower town displays four levels of occupation, with only levels II (approximately 1945–1835 BCE) and Ib (approximately 1832–1700 BCE)—which roughly correspond to the Middle Bronze Age—yielding significant written records, totaling around 22,200 and 560 tablets, respectively. In contrast, only forty scattered tablets were found on the mound, where palaces and temples were uncovered, indicating that there are no surviving archives from the local authorities, if such archives ever existed. This kārum appears to have served as "the administrative and distribution centre of the entire Assyrian colony network in Anatolia". A late record, from circa 1400 BC, recounts the story of a king of Kaneš called Zipani, with seventeen local city-kings who rose up against Naram-Sin of Akkad, who ruled circa 2254–2218 BC.
During the kārum period, and before the conquest of Pitḫana, these local kings reigned in Kaneš:
The king of Zalpuwa, Uḫna, raided Kaneš, after which the Zalpuwans carried off the city's Šiuš idol. Pitḫana, the king of Kuššara, conquered Neša "in the night, by force", but "did not do evil to anyone in it". Neša revolted against the rule of Pitḫana's son, Anitta, but Anitta quashed the revolt and made Neša his capital. Anitta further invaded Zalpuwa, captured its king Huzziya, and recovered the Šiuš idol for Neša.
In the 17th century BC, Anitta's descendants moved their capital to Hattusa, which Anitta had cursed, thus founding the line of Hittite kings. The inhabitants thus referred to the Hittite language as Nešili 'the Neša tongue'.
Modern archaeological work began in 1948, when Kültepe was excavated by a team from the Turkish Historical Society and the General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums. The team was led by Tahsin Özgüç until his death, in 2005.[4]Özgüç, Tahsin, "Kültepe (Karahöyük) Hafriyatı 1950", Belleten 17.66, pp. 251-268, 1953Tahsin Özgüç, The Palaces and Temples of Kultepe-Kanis/Nesa, Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1999, After 2005 the excavation was directed by Fikri Kulakoğlu.Üstündağ, Handan "Human remains from Kültepe-Kanesh: preliminary results of the old Assyrian burials from the 2005–2008 excavations", Current research at Kültepe-Kanesh. An interdisciplinary and integrative approach to trade networks, internationalism, and identity. Lockwood, Atlanta, pp. 157-176, 2014[5] Cécile Michel, "Miscellaneous tablets and fragments found at Kültepe in 2012 and 2013", W. Tyborowski. Awilum sa la mase - man who cannot be forgotten. Studies in Honor of Prof. Stefan Zawadzki presented on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, pp.153-164, 2018
Some attribute Level II's burning to the conquest of the city of Assur by the kings of Eshnunna, but Bryce blames it on the raid of Uhna. Some attribute Level Ib's burning to the fall of Assur, other nearby kings and eventually to Hammurabi of Babylon.
To date, over 22,000 cuneiform tablets have been recovered from the site, mainly from the kārum, with only 40 found in the Upper city.E. Bilgic and S Bayram, Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri II, Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1995, K. R. Veenhof, Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri V, Turk Tarih Kurumu, 2010, Michel, Cécile. "The Alāhum and Aur-taklāku archives found in 1993 at Kültepe Kani", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 53-67, 2009
Subsequent excavations attested the following stratigraphy of Kültepe:Gojko Barjamovic: A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period; Copenhagen 2011. ISBN 978-87-635-3645-5, S. 231.
Recently, in "a small cell-plan structure cutting the walls of the monumental building of Kültepe Level, dated to the second half of the 3rd Millennium BC, statuettes made of alabaster with various attributes and ritual vessels in unprecedented forms were found in situ," and inside a "monumental building discovered in 2018 which contains a room called the 'idol room,' a collection of the largest number of idols and statuettes ever discovered in the ancient Near East was."Öztürk, Güzel, and Fikri Kulakoglu, (2023). "New Discoveries on Alabaster Idols and Statuettes of the 3rd Millennium BC at Kültepe: A Comparative Analysis to Understand the Typology, Context And Meanings of Ritual Objects", in: 2023 ASOR Abstract Booklet, pp. 76-77.
Several other cities in Anatolia also had a kārum, but the largest was Kaneš, whose important kārum was inhabited by soldiers and merchants from Assyria for hundreds of years. They traded local tin and wool for luxury items, foodstuffs, spices and woven fabrics from the Assyrian homeland and Elam.
The remains of the kārum form a large circular mound 500 m in diameter and about 20 m above the plain (a tell). The kārum settlement is the result of several superimposed stratigraphic periods. New buildings were constructed on top of the remains of the earlier periods so there is a deep stratigraphy from prehistoric times to the early Hittite period.
The kārum was destroyed by fire at the end of levels II and Ib. The inhabitants left most of their possessions behind, as found by modern archaeologists.
The findings have included numerous baked-clay tablets, some of which were enclosed in clay envelopes stamped with . The documents record common activities, such as trade between the Assyrian colony and the city-state of Assur and between Assyrian merchants and local people. The trade was run by families rather than the state. The Kültepe texts are the oldest documents from Anatolia. Although they are written in Old Assyrian, the Hittite language loanwords and names in the texts are the oldest record of any Indo-European language.Calvert Watkins. "Hittite". In: The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Edited by Roger D. Woodard. Cambridge University Press. 2008. p. 6. Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use of both cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence.
Archaeology
By 1880, cuneiform tablets said to be from Kara Eyuk ('black village') or Gyul Tepé ('burnt mound') near Kaisariyeh, had begun to appear on the market, some being thus bought by the British Museum.[2] A. H. Sayce, The Museum Collection Of Cappadocian Tablets, The Museum Journal, vol. IX, no. 2, pp. 148-150, Penn Museum, June 1918 In response the site was worked by Ernest Chantre for two seasons, beginning in 1893.Ernest Chantre, Recherches archéologiques dans l'Asie occidentale : mission en Cappadoce, 1893-1894'', 1898
Hugo Grothe dug a small soundage in 1906.Hugo Grothe, Meine Vorderasienexpedilion 1906 und 1907, I (Leipzig, 1911)
In 1925, Bedřich Hrozný excavated Kültepe and found over 1000 cuneiform tablets, some of which ended up in Prague and in Istanbul.Frédéric Hrozný, "Rapport Preliminaire Sur Les Fouilles Tchécoslovaques Du Kultépé (1925)", Syria, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1–12, 1927Julius Lewy, Die altassyrischen Texte vom Kültepe bei Kaisarije, Konstantinopel, 1926Veysel Donbaz, Keilschrifttexte in den Antiken-Museen zu Stambul 2, Freiburger Altorientalische Studien, 1989 In 1929 the site was visited
and photographed by James Henry Breasted of the Oriental Institute of Chicago. There had been much digging for fertilizer, which had destroyed a quarter of the mound.[3] James Henry Breasted, EXPLORATIONS IN HITTITE ASIA MINOR—1929, ORIENTAL INSTITUTE COMMUNICATIONS, no. 8, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 1929
Kaneš; first written as Ga-ni-šu ki
Level 12 temple ( megaron) and Level 11b building with pilastersKulakoğlu, Fikri, & Güzel Öztürk, (February 2015). New evidence for international trade in Bronze Age central Anatolia: recently discovered bullae at Kültepe-Kanesh, in: Antiquity, Issue 343, Volume 89: "The Kültepe Level 12 temple, which is called a megaron with its rectangular plan and which contains a long hall andÖztür a porch in front, approaches that of the largest and best-known megaron of Troy II in western Anatolia ... The so-called 'building with pilasters' (Özgüç 1986: 34) is dated to Level 11b."Beginning of urban development Kaniš; Anatolian center of Assyrian trade Kaniš; Assyrian trading center Neša; the place no longer has a central function Settlement gap important central location in the Neo-Hittite state Tabal Settlement gap Anisa; Polis; Coin finds from 323 BC insignificant settlement; Coin finds up to 180 AD
Kārum Kaneš
The quarter of the city that most interests historians is the kārum, a portion of the city that was set aside by local officials for the early Assyrian merchants to use without paying taxes as long as the goods remained inside the kārum. The term kārum means "port" in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the time, but its meaning was later extended to refer to any trading colony whether or not it bordered water.
Dating of Waršama Sarayi
At Level II, the destruction was so total that no wood survived for dendrochronology. In 2003, researchers from Cornell University dated wood in level Ib from the rest of the city, built centuries earlier. The dendrochronologists date the bulk of the wood from buildings of the Waršama Sarayi to 1832 BC, with further refurbishments up to 1779 BC.
In 2016 new research using radiocarbon dating and dendrology on timber used in this site and the palace in Acemhöyük show the likely earliest use of the palace as not before 1851–1842 BC (68.2% hpd) or 1855–1839 BC (95.4% hpd). In combination with the many Assyrian objects found here, this dating shows that only middle or low-middle chronology are the only remaining possible chronologies that fit these new data.
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