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Hope is an Optimism Mental state that is based on an of positive outcomes with respect to events and circumstances in one's own life, or the world at large. As a verb, Merriam-Webster defines hope as "to expect with confidence" or "to cherish a desire with anticipation".
Among its opposites are dejection, hopelessness, and despair.B. Kirkpatrick ed., Roget's Thesaurus (1995) pp. 852–3
Hope finds expression through many dimensions of human life, including practical reasoning, the religious virtue of hope, legal doctrine, and literature, alongside cultural and mythological aspects.
The psychologist Charles R. Snyder linked hope to the existence of a goal, combined with a determined plan for reaching that goal. Alfred Adler had similarly argued for the centrality of goal-seeking in human psychology,Eric Berne, What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (1974) p. 57–8 as too had philosophical anthropologists like Ernst Bloch.Peter Berger, A Rumour of Angels (1973) p. 79 Snyder also stressed the link between hope and mental willpower (hardiness),Snyder, Charles D. The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There. New York: The Free Press, 1994, pp. 7–8 as well as the need for realistic perception of goals (problem orientation), arguing that the difference between hope and optimism was that the former can look like wishful thinking but the latter provides the energy to find practical pathways for an improved future.Snyder, Charles D. The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There. New York: The Free Press, 1994, pg. 19 D. W. Winnicott saw a child's antisocial behavior as expressing as a cry for help, an unconscious hope, meaning an unspoken desire for a positive outcome for those who are in control in the wider society, when containment within the immediate family had failed.D. W. Winnicott, The Child, the Family, and the Outside World (1973) pp. 228–9 Object relations theory similarly sees the analytic transference as motivated in part by an unconscious hope that past conflicts and traumas can be dealt with anew.P. Casement, Further Learning from the Patient (1990) p. 7
In other words, hope was defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways.
Snyder argues that individuals who are able to realize these three components and develop a belief in their ability are hopeful people who can establish clear goals, imagine multiple workable pathways toward those goals, and persevere, even when obstacles get in their way.
Snyder proposed a "Hope Scale" which considered that a person's determination to achieve their goal is their measured hope. Snyder differentiates between adult-measured hope and child-measured hope. The Adult Hope Scale by Snyder contains 12 questions: 4 measuring 'pathways thinking', 4 measuring 'agency thinking', and 4 that are simply fillers. Each subject responds to each question using an 8-point scale.Snyder, C. R., Rand, K. L., & Sigmon, D. R. (2002). Hope Theory: A Member of the Positive Psychology Family. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 257–276). New York: Oxford University Press. Fibel and Hale measure hope by combining Snyder's Hope Scale with their own Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale (GESS) to empirically measure hope. Snyder regarded that psychotherapy can help focus attention on one's goals, drawing on tacit knowledge of how to reach them.Snyder, Charles D., The Psychology of Hope: You Can Get Here from There. New York: The Free Press, 1994, p. 10 Similarly, there is an outlook and a grasp of reality to hope, distinguishing No Hope, Lost Hope, False Hope and Real Hope, which differ in terms of viewpoint and realism.
| Hopeful ! rowspan="4" | Outlook !Wishful !Committed | ||
| Hopeful Outlook Distorted Reality False Hope | Hopeful Outlook Accurate Reality Real Hope | ||
| Skeptical | No Hope Hopeless Outlook Distorted Reality | Lost Hope Hopeless Outlook Accurate Reality | |
| Hopeless !Helpless !Surrendered | |||
| ! colspan="2"Grasp of Reality | |||
| Uninformed Distorted Denied | Informed Accurate Assimilated |
Contemporary philosopher Richard Rorty understands hope as more than goal setting, rather as a metanarrative, a story that serves as a promise or reason for expecting a better future. Rorty as Postmodernism believes past meta-narratives, including the Christian story, utilitarianism, and Marxism have proved false hopes; that theory cannot offer social hope; and that liberal man must learn to live without a consensual theory of social hope.D. L. Hall, Richard Rorty (1994) p. 150 and p. 232 Rorty says a new document of promise is needed for social hope to exist again.Rorty, Richard. Philosophy and Social Hope. London: Penguin Books, 1999
Snyder's theory uses hope as a mechanism that is most often seen in psychotherapy. In these instances, the therapist helps their client overcome barriers that have prevented them from achieving goals. The therapist would then help the client set realistic and relevant personal goals (i.e. "I am going to find something I am passionate about and that makes me feel good about myself"), and would help them remain hopeful of their ability to achieve these goals, and suggest the correct pathways to do so.
Whereas Snyder's theory focuses on hope as a mechanism to overcome an individual's lack of motivation to achieve goals, the other major theory developed by Kaye A. Herth deals more specifically with an individual's future goals as they relate to coping with illnesses. Herth views hope as "a motivational and cognitive attribute that is theoretically necessary to initiate and sustain action toward goal attainment". Establishing realistic and attainable goals in this situation is more difficult, as the individual most likely does not have direct control over the future of their health. Instead, Herth suggests that the goals should be concerned with how the individual is going to personally deal with the illness—"Instead of drinking to ease the pain of my illness, I am going to surround myself with friends and family".
While the nature of the goals in Snyder's model differ with those in Herth's model, they both view hope as a way to maintain personal motivation, which ultimately will result in a greater sense of optimism.
Overall, studies have demonstrated that maintaining a sense of hope during a period of recovery from illness is beneficial. A sense of hopelessness during the recovery period has, in many instances, resulted in adverse health conditions for the patient (i.e. depression and anxiety following the recovery process). Additionally, having a greater amount of hope before and during cognitive therapy has led to decreased PTSD-related depression symptoms in war veterans. Hope has also been found to be associated with more positive perceptions of subjective health. However, reviews of research literature have noted that the connections between hope and symptom severity in other mental health disorders are less clear, such as in cases of individuals with schizophrenia.
Hope is a powerful protector against chronic or life-threatening illnesses. A person's hope (even when facing an illness that will likely end their life) can be helpful by finding joy or comfort. It can be created and focused on achieving life goals, such as meeting grandchildren or attending a child's wedding. Hope can be an opportunity for us to process and go through events, that can be traumatic. A setback in life, an accident, or our own final months of living can be times when hope is comfort and serves as a pathway from one stage to the next.
Hope is a powerful emotion that drives us to keep working and moving forward. It gives us the power to survive. In a study conducted by Harvard, Curt Richter experimented with 12 wild rats and 12 domesticated rats. The wild rats, known for their great swimming abilities, survived for only about two minutes when placed in a glass container of water with no way of escape. In contrast, the domesticated rats survived for days. Curt attributed this difference to hope. The domesticated rats hoped to be saved from drowning, but the wild rats had no such hope, as they had never experienced rescue.
Curt decided to run another experiment with 12 wild rats. He placed them in water, and when they were about to drown, he took them out and held them briefly, creating an experience of hope. He then returned the rats to the water to observe how long they would tread water. Remarkably, they survived just as long as the domesticated rats—about 60 hours. With hope, the rats went from surviving for 2 minutes to treading water for 60 hours.
Hope is a powerful emotion. It drives us to move faster, further, and longer than we thought possible. But for hope to thrive, it must be anchored in something more powerful than ourselves. The rats had hope that a saving hand would come and lift them out of the water.
The second argument is the division between hope and . Those that are hopeful are actively trying to investigate the best path of action while taking into consideration the obstacles. Research has shown though that many of those who have "hope" are wishfully thinking and passively going through the motions, as if they are in denial about their actual circumstances. Being in denial and having too much hope may negatively impact both the patient and the physician.
Focusing on parts of Asia, hope has taken on a secular or materialistic form in relation to the pursuit of economic growth. Primary examples are the rise of the economies of China and India, correlating with the notion of Chindia. A secondary relevant example is the increased use of contemporary architecture in rising economies, such as the building of the Shanghai World Financial Center, Burj Khalifa and Taipei 101, which has given rise to a prevailing hope within the countries of origin.Moïsi, Dominique. "The Culture of Hope." The Geopolitics of Emotion: How Cultures of Fear, Humiliation, and Hope Are Reshaping the World. New York: Doubleday, 2009. 30–55. Print. In chaotic environments hope is transcended without cultural boundaries, Syrian refugee children are supported by UNESCO's education project through creative education and psycho-social assistance. Other inter-cultural support for instilling hope involve food culture, disengaging refugees from trauma through immersing them in their rich cultural past.
Hope can be used as an artistic plot device and is often a motivating force for change in dynamic characters. A commonly understood reference from western popular culture is the subtitle "A New Hope" from the original first installment (now considered Episode IV) in the Star Wars science fiction space opera. The subtitle refers to one of the lead characters, Luke Skywalker, who is expected in the future to allow good to triumph over evil within the plot of the films.
The swallow has been a symbol of hope, in Aesop's fables and numerous other historic literature.Christos A. Zafiropoulos (2001), Ethics in Aesop's Fables: The Augustana Collection, , Brill Academic, page 61 It symbolizes hope, in part because it is among the first birds to appear at the end of winter and the start of spring.Hope B. Werness (2006), The Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in Art, , page 395 Other symbols of hope include the anchorM. Ferber, A Dictionary of Literary Symbolism (2007) 'Anchor' and the dove.J. Matthews, The Grail Tradition (2011) p. 67
Nietzsche took a contrarian but coherent view of hope:-
According to the Holman Bible Dictionary, hope is a "trustful expectation...the anticipation of a favorable outcome under God's guidance." In The Pilgrim's Progress, it is Hopeful who comforts Christian in Doubting Castle; while conversely at the entrance to Dante's Hell were the words, "Lay down all hope, you that go in by me".Dante, Hell (1975) p. 85
In the centuries that followed, the concept of karma changed from sacramental rituals to actual human action that builds and serves society and human existence–a philosophy epitomized in the Bhagavad Gita. Hope, in the structure of beliefs and motivations, is a long-term karmic concept. In Hindu belief, actions have consequences, and while one's effort and work may or may not bear near term fruits, it will serve the good, that the journey of one's diligent efforts (karma) and how one pursues the journey,David Krieger (1989), Salvation in the World – A Hindu-Christian Dialogue on Hope and Liberation, in Jerald Gort (Editor, Dialogue and Syncretism: An Interdisciplinary Approach), , see Chapter 14 sooner or later leads to bliss and moksha.Jeffrey Wattles, The Concept of Karma in the Bhagawad Gita, Department of Philosophy, Wabash Center, Kent State University (2002)
Buddhism
Buddhism's teachings are centered around the concept of hope. It puts those who are suffering on a path to a more harmonious world and better well-being. Hope acts as a light to those who are lost or suffering. Factors of Saddha (faith), wisdom, and aspiration work together to form practical hope. Practical hope is the foundation of putting those suffering on a path toward inner freedom and holistic well-being. It instills the belief in positive outcomes even in the midst of suffering and adversity.
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