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The Aymara or Aimara (, ) people are an Indigenous people in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America. Approximately 2.3 million Aymara live in northwest Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. The ancestors of the Aymara lived in the region for many centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca Empire in the late 15th or early 16th century and later of the Spanish in the 16th century. With the Spanish American wars of independence (1810–1825), the Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia and Peru. After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), Chile annexed territory with the Aymara population.
The Aymara people of the Altiplano, the Titicaca basin, and the ancient city of Tiwanaku to the south of Lake Titicaca, also encountered the Inca civilisation prior to the rise of the Inca Empire. (2011). 9781938770272, Cotsen Institute of Archeology Press. ISBN 9781938770272 One of the Inca origin stories tells of Manco Capac and Mama Occlo being brought up from the waters of Lake Titicaca by the Sun God to create an Inca dynasty.
The rulers of the Kingdom of Cusco were obligated to travel regularly to the Isla del Sol (Sun Island), a rocky island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca, for ritual worship of the Sun God. Charles Stanish writes:
In 1438, Aymara warriors were, be it as mercenaries, volunteers or conscripts, present in the army of the Inca ruler, Pachacuti in the defense of Cusco during the Chanka–Inca War.9780806119243, University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806119243
The often quoted Spanish conquistador and chronicler, Pedro Cieza de León travelled through the Altiplano in 1548. He gives the ruler, Viracocha Inca (–1438) as the first to expand Inca territory south from the Kingdom of Cusco but that he was unsuccessful in securing the area. Again, de León records Viracocha's successor, Pachacuti (–1471) as the leader who succeeded in bringing the area under Inca control, effected by his son, Yupanqui (–1493). This chronology has been used widely by historians and archeologists in this field following the seminal work of John Howland Rowe.
However, more recent historians warn that the chronology of the spread of the Inca empire from Cusco, south to the Altiplano, may be more complex. For example, the names of Incan leaders are variable and may have been used across generations; there were revolts amongst the elite of the Inca Kingdom of Cusco itself; and the history given by the Inca to the Spanish chroniclers was given as part mythology. Furthermore, the dating of the conquest of the Incas by the finding of certain ceramics in archeological strata is, in this area, unreliable.
Unlike the many groups of Indigenous peoples who lost every vestige of their cultures under Inca rule, the Aymara civilisation survived, at least partially. The Aymara insurrections were violent but also organised and persistent (one of twelve years duration). In the end, though, the Aymara were unsuccessful in throwing off the Inca. The outcome was harsh retribution in the form of executions or exile.
In addition to this direct punishment, the Aymara were increasingly subjugated by the building of civil, military, agricultural and religious infrastructure through their lands, removal of their sons to Cusco for education, taxation in the form of relinquishing sacred objects to the Inca. The Aymara were also required to give labour and military service to the Inca.
Moreover, groups of Aymara were removed from their village to work in other parts of the Empire, the number of Aymara living in Cusco itself was limited and colonists from elsewhere in the Empire were settled in the region.
Pizarro reached Cusco by 1534. Some Native groups saw the Spaniards as liberators and lent support to Pizarro. Pizarro also secured a lineage of Inca , including Manco Inca Yupanqui. Manco Inca Yupanqui was ill treated by Pizarro's men. He escaped then returned with tens of thousands warriors, forcing Cusco into siege. After ten months, and the arrival of Spanish reinforcements, Manco Inca Yupanqui withdrew.
Having secured Cusco, Pizarro continued south with the resources, wealth and infrastructure of the Inca and Native labour. He benefited from the lack of cohesion between the Altiplano ethnic groups. He had unstoppable soldiers and weapons. In 1542, Spain created the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Indigenous men between the ages of 18 and 50 were taxed in money and labour. Tax was collected by the village chiefs. One-sixth of taxable men were already assigned to encomenderos who collected the taxes. Twenty percent of the monies went to the crown. In practice, the responsibilities of the encomiendas were applied partially or not at all, while the taxes were.
In 1870, David Forbes, Mineralogy and voyager, wrote to the Ethnological Society of London, of his observations in Bolivia and Peru:
Whatever may have been the condition of the Aymaras under the Incas, it became infinitely worse after the Spanish conquest; it is all but impossible to convey in words a true picture of the barbarous treatment which they, as well as the neighbouring Indian tribes, experienced at the hands of the Spaniards. Treated infinitely worse than slaves, they were torn from their homes and families to be driven like cattle either to the Coca plantations and Gold panning in the Yungas, or hot unhealthy valleys to the east of the high Andes (where they rapidly fell victims to a climate altogether unsuited to their constitution), or to the Silver mining of Potosí, Chayanta, Oruro Department (where from forced labour, ill-treatment, and insufficient food, they succumbed equally fast, only to be replaced by fresh supplies similarly obtained).
Indigenous people could no longer be slaves. They could not be sent to the mines without cause. Clergy and Civil service had to give up their encomiendas to the Crown Estate. New grants could not be given and importantly, an encomienda could not be an inheritable property.
Among the approximate 500 encomiendas in the viceroyalty of Peru, there were cases of corruption and circumvention of the new laws. There were skirmishes between Royalist soldiers and groups of encomenderos, culminating in the death of many encomenderos in an insurrection led by Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548.
The new laws started to streamline the encomienda system but Aymara numbers continued to fall. Furthermore, the Indigenous labour force was redistributed causing forced and permanent displacement to cities, factories, or mines. For example, in 1573, the Indigenous population of labourers at the Potosí silver mines was 11,000. By 1673, the same population numbered 1,600.
Toledo instructed the secular clergy and the leaders of the to begin the evangelisation of the viceroyalty. This was not an easy task due to a lack of clergy, lack of experience of the monastic orders in evangelising and the language barrier between the Spanish and the Indigenous groups who spoke, for the most part, dialects of Aymaran or Quechuan.
Some efforts were made to provide simple lexicons for religious teaching. However, this was difficult because the Aymara language had no orthography and Aymara phonetics did not compare well with those of the Spanish language. Ludovico Bertonio was an Italian Jesuit missionary who, in 1603, wrote about the Aymara language. On one hand, some clergy tried to adapt notable aspects of the Aymara people's spiritual life, for example, or seasons of the year, with the liturgy and the Liturgical year On the other hand, such efforts were shunned by those who saw the Aymara spiritual life as one of idolatry and objected to the use of alcohol or coca in rituals.
The border between Peru and Bolivia transects Lake Titicaca. Chile denied Bolivia of its only seaport at Arica.
The Aymara people left living in Chile once again had most aspects of their lives torn asunder. In this case, it was Chilean military clergy who began the "chilenisation" of the Aymara. The emphasis of this program was indoctrination of the ideology of Chilean nationalism.
Traditional clothing items include the Chullo, a knitted wool cap with ear flaps and ties; a woven carrying cloth Aguayo carried across the shoulders; a poncho; and a full circle skirt gathered and decorated in horizontal layers (corte).
Development of the Aymara textile industry has led to expositions of luxury alpaca wool garments, silks, lace and delicately embroidered blouses. Another innovation drawing on the Aymara colorful aesthetic is buildings designed in a "Neo-Andean" style which has appeared in El Alto.
Both Quechua people and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia adopted the style of wearing in the 1920s. According to legend, a shipment of bowler hats was sent from Europe to Bolivia via Peru for use by Europeans working on railroad construction. They were given to the Indigenous people if they were too small for the construction workers. (2025). 9780761420668, Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 9780761420668
The potato ( Solanum tuberosum) originated in the region of the Aymara. Wild species are no longer eaten but are still found. Peru is home to 47% of all wild potato species. Cultivated species are a dietary staple. Potatoes can be stored for many years as Chuño. Potatoes are exposed to freezing temperatures overnight then dried during the day. It provides food security in times of famine. However, it is not of high nutritional value. It is used in a variety of dishes. One traditional dish, common in La Paz, is Chairo. It is a type of stew made with Chuño, meat, carrots, onions, and corn.
The psychoactive drug, cocaine is just one of the alkaloid substances found in coca plants. One variant grown for its cocaine content is Erythroxylum coca. Other variants of the coca plant contain less potent or non-toxic alkaloids and give only a mild stimulant effect.
Aymara Indigenous spirituality ( pachakuti) is based on the seasons and key agricultural events. It gives the foundation of the existence of the Aymara and their responsibility to the natural environment. The Aymara concept of time comes from the cycle of natural events such as the seasons, historical events such as the arrival of the Spaniards and mythological concepts such as the time of the sun. When there is a major shift in these, it is transformation ( kuti). The deities are regarded in a hierarchical system.
The spirits of the high mountains and altiplano are worshipped as entities which provide for and protect the people. These entities are called Achachilas which might be understood as grandparents, ancestors or gods of the household. The majestic mountains, Illimani, Illampu and Huayna Potosí are three Achachilas deities.
Auki auki are people chosen to represent Achachilas in festivals so the spirits may dance upon the earth. Human figuries of the Achachilas are found at The Witches' Market (calle de las brujes) in La Paz. The items required for ritual offerings are sold at the market. They include coca leaves, incense, stillborn llama, potions, soaps and candles.
The stillborn llama ( sullus), mummified by exposure to the cold, dry conditions of the Altiplano, are sold in all sizes from tiny to near fully formed. Their legs are bound and blessings have been given by a priest ( yatiri). Stillborn are a frequent occurrence in llamas who can fall pregnant again at two weeks post delivery. The sullus are used as burnt offerings or are buried in the foundations of the house. In Aymara mythology, the Heavenly Llama drinks water from the ocean and urinates it as rain. According to Aymara eschatology, llamas will return to the water springs and lagoons where they come from at the end of all time.
Traditionally, the Aymara dead have been buried in and outside the home, in , in stone and in cylindrical, upright graves. The chullpa funerial towers were reserved for the elite of society. They varied in size, architecture and the number of burial chambers.
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However, responses to these challenges are not all the same. For example, some Aymara families put deeper Spanish language learning over Aymara language skills for their children in order to improve the children's chances of improving their options in the general population.
Furthermore, the nature of response to these challenges delineates along national lines.
Quispe was released from prison in 1997. He then reinvigorated the CSUTCB (Confederación sindical única de trabajadores campesinos de Bolivia or Unified Syndical Confederation of Peasant Workers of Bolivia) which had first formed in 1979 to represent Aymara people.
Between 2000 and 2005, a succession of protests, such as the Bolivian gas conflict in 2003 and mass protests in 2005, toppled the government of Carlos Mesa.
Along Katarist lines, the Movement Towards Socialism ( Movimiento al Socialismo – Instrumento Político por la Soberanía de los Pueblos or MAS) political party evolved to support coco farmers, mine workers and the urban poor. The party, under the leadership of Evo Morales and the concept of a "pre-hispanic utopia" was democratically elected to government in December 2005. It remains the incumbent party in 2024.
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