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Ascalon or Ashkelon was an ancient Near East port city on the coast of the of high historical and archaeological significance. Its remains are located in the archaeological site of Tel Ashkelon, within the city limits of the modern city of . Traces of settlement exist from the 3rd millennium BCE, with evidence of city fortifications emerging in the Middle Bronze Age. During the Late Bronze Age, it was integrated into the Egyptian Empire, before becoming one of the five cities of the following the migration of the . The city was later destroyed by the Babylonians but was subsequently rebuilt.

Ascalon remained a major metropolis throughout the classical period, as a Hellenistic city persisting into the period. Christianity began to spread in the city as early as the 4th century CE. During the it came under Islamic rule, before becoming a highly contested fortified foothold on the coast during the Crusades. Two significant Crusader battles took place in the city: the Battle of Ascalon in 1099, and the Siege of Ascalon in 1153. The Mamluk sultan ordered the destruction () of the city fortifications and the harbour in 1270 to prevent any further military use, though structures such as the Shrine of Husayn's Head survived. The nearby town of al-Majdal was established in the same period. The village of existed adjacent to the deserted city until 1948.

Names
Ascalon has been known by many variations of the same basic name over the millennia. It is speculated that the name comes from the Northwest Semitic and possibly Canaanite root Ṯ-Q-L, meaning "to weigh", which is also the root of "".

The settlement is first mentioned in the from the 18th-19th centuries BCE as Asqalānu. In the ( 1350 BCE), there are seven letters to and from King of Ašqaluna and the . The (c. 1208 BCE) of the 19th dynasty recounts the Pharaoh putting down a rebellion at Asqaluna. The settlement is then mentioned eleven times in the as ʾAšqəlōn.

In the Hellenistic period, Askálōn emerged as the name for the city, persisting through the and later .

In the Early Islamic period, the form became ʿAsqalān. The medieval Crusaders called it Ascalon.

In it is known as Ashkelon. Today, Ascalon is a designated archaeological area known as Tel Ashkelon ("Mound of Ascalon") and administered as Ashkelon National Park.

Geographical setting
Ascalon lies on the Mediterranean coast, 16 km. north of and 14 km. south of Ashdod and . Around 15 million years ago, a river flowed from inland to the sea here. It was later covered by , formed by sand that was washed to the shores from the . The river became an , which was later exploited by Ascalon's residents for the constructions of wells. The oldest well found at Ascalon dates around 1000 BCE.

Prehistory
The remains of prehistoric activity and settlement at Ashkelon were revealed in salvage excavations prior to urban development in the Afridar and Marina neighborhoods of modern Ashkelon, some north of Tel Ashkelon. The fieldwork was conducted in the 1950s under the supervision of and in 1997–1998 under the supervision of .Garfinkel and Dag, 2008, 3–13

The earliest traces of human activity include some 460 tools dated to the period ( 23,000 to 10,000 BCE). These come along wide evidence for exploitation in the southern coastal plain in that time. This activity come to hiatus during the early periods of in the , and resumed only during the pre-pottery C phase of the ( 7000–6400 BCE). Jean Perrot's excavation revealed eight dwelling pits, along with and installations, while Garfinkel's excavations revealed numerous pits, and animal bones.Garfinkel and Dag (2008), pp. 3–13, 43–49.

Early Bronze Age
During the Early Bronze Age I period (EB I, 3700–2900 BCE), human settlement thrived in Ashkelon. The central site was in Afridar, situated between two long and wide ridges. This area had unique ecological conditions, offering an abundance of goundwater, fertile soils and varied flora and fauna. Two other settlements existed at Tel Ashkelon itself, and in the Barnea neighborhood of modern Ashkelon. The site of Afridar is one of the most extensive and most excavated settlements of the EB I period, with over two dozen dig sites, excavated by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA). The flourishment of EB I Ashkelon has also been linked to trade relations with Prehistoric Egypt. The site of Afridar was abandoned at the start of the EB II period ( 2900 BCE). It was suggested that the cause for the abandonment was a climate change causing increased precipitation, which destroyed the ecological condition that had served the locals for centuries.

In the EB II–III (2900–2500 BCE), the site of Tel Ashkelon served as an important seaport for the trade route between the Old Kingdom of Egypt and . Excavations at the northern side of the mound revealed a mudbrick structure and numerous olive-oil jars. This port was abandoned with the deurbanization of Canaan during the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE (Intermediate Bronze Age). At that time, the center of settlement moved to the unwalled rural settlement at Barne'a.

Canaanite Ashkelon (1800–1170 BCE)
Middle Bronze Age
Ashkelon was resettled in the Middle Bronze Age on the background of country-wide urban renaissance, linked to the immigration of people from the north, as well as the revival of trade relations between Middle Kingdom of Egypt and . It soon become the fortified center of a city-kingdom, as evidenced by both historical records and archaeology. Ashkelon first mention in historical records is in the from the time of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (20th–19th centuries BCE). These texts were written on red pots, which were broken as part of a cursing ritual against Egypt's enemies. Ashkelon appears three times under the name Asqanu ( ꜥIsqꜥnw), along with three of its rulers ḫꜥykm (or Khalu-Kim), ḫkṯnw and Isinw.
(2025). 9789004135673, Brill.
These names of Northwest Semitic origin, are identified as . Scholars have suggested Ashkelon was one of many Levantine city-states established by Amorites in the early second millennium BCE.

The most distinctive feature of the site of Ashkelon is its fortifications, consisting of free-standing earthen ramparts which were erected as early as around 1800 BCE. In the excavations of the northern slope of the ramparts, archaeologists detected five phases of construction including city gates, , guard towers and in a later phase, a sanctuary right after the entrance to the city. The material culture and especially Egyptian-style pottery showed that Middle Bronze Ashkelon lasted until around 1560 BCE.

Late Bronze Age (Egyptian rule)
Early decades of Egyptian rule (15th century BCE)
Ashkelon came under the control of the New Kingdom of Egypt in the time of , following the Battle of Megiddo (1457 BCE). During the Late Bronze Age, its territory stretched across the coastal plain, bordering to the south, and to the east and to the north.
(2025). 9789652660206, Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University.

The ties between Ashkelon and Egypt in the late 15h century are documented in Papyrus Hermitage 1116A, which is dated to the time of (1427–1401 BCE). It includes list compiled by an Egyptian official detailing rations of bread and beer, that were provided to envoys of noble chariot warriors () from 12 Canaanite cities, including Ashkelon. It is believed that these envoys were securing the caravans that carried tribute to the Egyptian king, and that they served as his loyal ambassadors.Morris 2005, 141–142Koch 2021, 33–36

Amarna period (14th century BCE)
During the (mid-14th century BCE, mostly during the reign of ), Ashkelon maintained its ties to Egypt. Over a dozen letters inscribed in clay that were found in the are linked to Ashkelon. A analysis of the clay used in five letters sent by a ruler named have supported the hypothesis that he ruled Ashkelon.

After Shubandu, Ashkelon was ruled by . Seven of his letters were identified (letters no. 320–326, 370). In these he expressed his loyalty to the king and assured he will provision the Egyptian troops with bread, beer, oil, grain and cattle. In another letter sent to the king (no. 287) , the ruler of , accuses Yidya, as well as the rulers of and of provisioning the ʿApiru, who were adversaries of the Egyptian empire. In another letter, Yidya is asked to send glass ingots to Egypt.

Final years of Egyptian rule (late 13th century – 1170 BCE)
The from 1208 BCE, commemorates the victory of against the rebellious Ashkelon, , and the ".

Philistine Ashkelon (1170–604 BCE)
The founding of Ashkelon, on top of the Egyptian-ruled Canaanite city, was dated by the site's excavators to 1170 BCE. Their earliest pottery, types of structures and inscriptions are similar to the early Greek urbanised centre at in , adding evidence to the conclusion that they were one of the "" that upset cultures throughout the Eastern Mediterranean at that time. In this period, the presents Ashkelon as one of the five Philistine cities that are constantly warring with the .

The Onomasticon of Amenope, dated to the early 11th century BCE, mentioned Ashkelon along with and Ashdod as cities of the Philistines.

In 2012, an Iron Age IIA Philistine cemetery was discovered outside the city. In 2013, 200 of the cemetery's estimated 1,200 graves were excavated. Seven were stone-built tombs. One ostracon and 18 jar handles were found to be inscribed with the Cypro-Minoan script. The ostracon was of local material and dated to 12th to 11th century BCE. Five of the jar handles were manufactured in coastal Lebanon, two in Cyprus, and one locally. Fifteen of the handles were found in an Iron I context and the rest in Late Bronze Age context.

Assyrian vassal and (734 – 620 BCE)
By 734 BCE, Ashkelon was captured by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, under the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III. Following the Assyrian campaign, Ashkelon, along with other southern Levantine kingdoms, paid tribute to Assyria, and thus became a vassal kingdom.
(1996). 9789004104266, Brill. .
A year later, while the Assyrians were preoccupied fighting Damascus, king of Ashkelon joined Israel, Tyre and Arab tribes in a revolt against Assyrian hegemony. The revolt failed and Mitinti I was killed and replaced by . The identity of Rukibtu is unknown. It has been conjectured that he was the son of Mitinti I. Otherwise it was suggested that he was a usurper, either one who was installed by the Assyrians, or one who usurped the throne on his own behalf, and secured his rule through accepting Assyrian subjugation. Either way, after Rukibu's ascension, Ashkelon resumed paying annual tributes to Assyria.
(1996). 9789004104266, Brill. .

Somewhere towards the end of the 8th century BCE, usurped the throne, and joined the rebellion instigated by king of Judah, along with other Levantine kings. Together, they deposed king Padi of who remained loyal to Assyria. The rebellion, which was launched shortly after 's was suppressed during his third campaign In 701 BCE, as described in the Taylor Prism. At that time, Ashkelon controlled several cities in the basin (near modern , including , , and ). These were seized and sacked during the Assyrian campaign. Sidqa himself was exiled with all of his family and was replaced Šarru-lu-dari, the son of Rukibtu, who resumed paying tribute to Assyria. During most of the 7th century BCE, Ashkelon was ruled by , the son of Sidqa, who was a vassal to and .

Under Egypt and the Babylonian destruction ( 620–604 BCE)
Close connections between Ashkelon and developed in the days of pharaoh , after Egypt filled the due to the withdrawal of the from the West.Stager 1996, p 71* This is demonstrated by the discovery of multiple Egyptian trade items, such as barrel-jars and made of clay, a jewelry box made of shell together with a necklace of . Egyptian cultic and items, and offering tables were likewise discovered, demonstrating a religious influence as well.Stager 1996, pp. 68*–69* According to (c.484–c.425 BCE), the city's temple of () was the oldest of its kind, imitated even in , and he mentions that this temple was pillaged by marauding during the time of their sway over the (653–625 BCE).

By the end of the 7th century BCE, Ashkelon's population is estimated to have been 10,000–12,000. It had fortifications which integrated and developed the Canaanite ramparts, in addition to an estimated 50 protective towers.Stager 1996, pp. 61*–62 Industry included wine and olive oil production and export, and possibly textile weaving.Stager 1996, pp. 63*–64* Together with Ashdod, it is the site most abundant with Red-Slipped ware, both imported and locally made, which decreases greatly further inland.Stager 1996, p. 67* Imports further included , elegant bowls and cups, " ware", and red and cream polished from , together with amphorae and decorated fine-ware from , , and the Greek islands.

The history of Philistine Ashkelon came to an end as the last of the Philistine cities to hold out against Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. By the month of (November or December) 604 BCE, the city was burnt, destroyed and its king Aga' taken into exile. The destruction of Ashkelon is reported in the Babylonian Chronicles and from a poem found in , Egypt, written by Greek poet whose brother, Antimenidas, served in the Babylonian army as a mercenary. As for the reason for Its destruction, it is noted by scholars that it came one year after the Assyrian-Egyptian defeat in the battle of Carchemish. Concern over the strong Egyptian influence on Ashkelon, and possibly its direct rule may be what brought Nebuchadnezzar II to reduce Ashkelon to rubble, ahead of the failed Babylonian invasion of Egypt.Stager 1996, pp. 67*–68* With the Babylonian destruction, the Philistine era was over. After its destruction, Ashkelon remained desolate for seventy years, until the .Stager 1996, p. 62: "Only with Cyrus the Great, successor to the Babylonians, does the archaeological record begin again in Ashkelon (where Phoenicians settled; Philistines did not return from the diaspora) – as in Jerusalem and in Judah, where many Jewish exiles returned to their homeland."

Tyrian settlement under Persian rule ( 520–332 BCE)
Following the Babylonian destruction, Ashkelon was deserted for about 80 years. While there are few historical sources about Ashkelon after the Achaemenid Empire took over, archaeological investigations reveal that it was rebuilt around 520–510 BCE (based on ceramic evidence).
(2025). 9783963271779, Zaphon.
The Greek historian has probably visited Ashkelon as part of his voyage in the 440s BCE and described the city's residents as . It was one of the first coastal sites to be established the by , and in Ashkelon's case, by Tyre, as attested by the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax from the mid-4th century BCE.M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, Vol. III: III. Pseudo-Scylax Many inscriptions in the Phoenician language were found across the site, including bearing Phoenician names from the late 6th to late 4th centuries BCE, and one East Greek vase with the Phoenician word for "cake" inscribed on it. The cult of the goddess was present at Ashkelon by that period. The city minted its own coins, with the abbreviation -Nun referring to its name.

The archaeological excavations revealed remains of the Achaemenid (Persian) period in three main locations (Grids 38, 50 and 57). The city features monumental structures constructed of foundations and . It had a city plan of streets with workshops and large warehouses by the shore. In these warehouses, many imported vessels and raw materials from the Mediterranean Sea and Ancient Near East were discovered. The origin of these imports is primarily and the Greek regions of , and , as well as , Egypt and . Among those findings are luxury items such as , black-figure and red-figure pottery, Ionian cups, athenian owl cups and a figurine of the ancient Egyptian god , made of . These were dated to the entire span of the period and attest to Ashkelon's role as a major sea port.

A unique discovery in the archaeology of Ashkelon is the large dog cemetery, located within a prime location in the center of the city. Archaeologists excavated over 800 dog burials, dated between early 5th and late 4th centuries BCE. It was suggested that the inhabitants of Ashkelon viewed the dogs as sacred animals. The dogs were given special treatment in their burial, with each being interred in a shallow pit and their bones were always found in the same position. The dogs of the breed, were both male and female, the majority were puppies but also matures. It is evident they died of natural causes, without human intervention or epidemic. Dogs played a role in society and religion in that time.

Hellenistic period (332–37 BCE)
Conquest of Alexander and the Wars of the Diadochi (332–301 BCE)
Alexander the Great in has captured the Levant in 332 BCE and reigned until 323 BCE. No known historical source describe what happened to Ascalon during that time. It was speculated that, following Alexander's seven month long siege and subsequent destruction Tyre, Ascalon's residents surrendered peacefully to his forces. This is further suggested by the Ascalon's absence from accounts of the two-month-long Siege of Gaza, its southern neighbor. The city's history in the final years of the 4th century BCE remains obscure. During this time, the region changed hands multiple times amid the conflict between Ptolemaic and Antigonid kingdoms, as part of the Wars of the Diadochi. These wars concluded with a Ptolemaic victory in the Levant in 301 BCE.

Ptolemaic rule (301–198 BCE)
Archaeological excavations have uncovered evidence evidence of violent destruction across the site, dated around 290 BCE. This period corresponds to the reign of Ptolemy I Soter during which the Ptolemaic Kingdom was consolidating its control over the Levant. Remains of collapsed and burnt structures were found, along with two hoards of silver coins discovered within the destruction layers, one of which appears to have been hastily buried by a resident shortly before the destruction. Ashkelon I, p. 287

Few historical records refer to Ascalon under Ptolemaic rule, a time generally characterized by limited documentation. The city is listed alongside , and Acre, as one of the four prominent ports in the in the Letter of Aristeas, dated to the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (). Ascalon appears once in the Zenon Papyri, the correspondence of Zenon of Kaunos, private secretary to Apollonius, the Ptolemaic finance minister, around 259 BCE. his limited mention suggests that Ascalon held a secondary status compared to other coastal cities, particularly , which is referenced numerous times. According to ( Antiquities of the Jews), Ascalon's residents refused to pay taxes to a Jewish tax-farmer appointed by Ptolemy III Euergetes around 242 BCE, and even insulted him. In response, Joseph had twenty of the cirty's nobles, and seized their property as tribute to the king, likely intended as a warning to other cities.

During the Fourth Syrian War (219–217 BC), the Ptolemaic kingdom fought the under Antiochus III the Great, who sought to reclaim former lands. Ascalon was likely captured by the Seleucids during this conflict, along with , prior to the Battle of Raphia (217 BCE). That battle ended in a Ptolemaic victory and the restoration of lost territories, including Ascalon. In 202 BCE, Antiochus III launched another campaign into the region, capturing Gaza after a prolonged siege. Ascalon was probably taken without resistance. However it was briefly retaken in the winter of 201/200 BCE by the Ptolemaic general Scopas of Aetolia. His forces were later defeated by the Seleucids at the Battle of Panium (200 BCE) and the Seleucid control over the country was consolidated by 198 BCE.

Seleucid rule (198–103 BCE)
Following the transition of to rule, the balance of power between Ascalon and Gaza shifted. Gaza lost its status as the principal port for trade caravans arriving from the Arabian Peninsula and, by the 2nd century BCE, ceased minting its own coins. By 169/168 BCE, during the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (), Ascalon was one of 19 cities across the empire granted . Historians have proposed several reasons for this policy, including efforts to enlist key cities in the empire's postwar reconstruction or purely financial motives. The coins minted in Ascalon constitute a key body of evidence for reconstructing the city's political history during the late Hellenistic period.

An autonomous coin minted in 168/167 BCE provides the only direct evidence that Ascalon held status by that time. The coin features a portrait of the Greek goddess on one side, and the bow of a with the inscriptions "of the Ascalonians" and "of the " on the other side. The exact timing of when cities received polis status remains debated among scholars. Some argue that such status was granted as early as the Ptolemaic rule. suggested that Seleucus IV Philopator () conferred polis rights to various cities as part of a decentralization policy intended to strengthen local control over rural hinterlands. He further argued that cities such as Ascalon paid substantial sums for these rights, providing much-needed revenue to the Seleucid state in the aftermath of prolonged warfare.

Political history during the Seleucid Dynastic wars
The political landscape of the region changed dramatically following the (167–141 BCE), the establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in , and the outbreak of the Seleucid Dynastic Wars in 157 BCE. In 153 BCE, under pressure from Hasmonean leader , Ascalon supported the claim of against incumbent Seleucid king, Demetrius I Soter. After Balas was killed in 145 BCE, Ascalon briefly supported Demetrius II Nicator, but Jonathan again compelled the city to recognize Antiochus VI Dionysus, the son of Balas. When seized power in 142 BCE, the Ascalon mint began issuing coins bearing his portrait. Antiochus VII Sidetes later challenged Tryphon, becoming the sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire in 138 BCE. Often regarded as the last strong Seleucid monarch, Sidetes retained control over the Levantine coast, including Ascalon, while the Hasmoneans held to the north.

Following Sidetes died in 128 BCE, the Seleucid Empire fell into renewed civil war. Around 126–123 BCE, Ascalon came under the control of Alexander II Zabinas, a usurper backed by Ptolemaic Kingdom to the south. His brief reign ended when the Ptolemaics shifted their support to his rival, Antiochus VIII Grypus, who defeated Zabinas in 123/122 BCE and took power. Grypus's mother , acted as both and as the de facto ruler. Coins minted in Ascalon from this period depict both her and Gryphus until her death in 121 BCE, when she was attempting to assassinate of her son. From 120 and 114 BCE, Ascalon's coinage featured only Gryphus portrait. In 114/113 BCE, Gryphus' half-brother, Antiochus IX Cyzicenus, launched a campaign to seize the throne. He captured most of the Selecuid territory, including Ascalon, which minted coins in his name for two years,until 112/111 BCE. Historians suggest that both the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Hasmonean dynasty may have aided Gryphus in the retaking of Ascalon. Around this time, the city was granted the status of a "holy" and "inviolable" city, likely exempting it from certain taxes and granting it partial of full autonomy, including immunity from legal enforcement actions, except in cases of offenses against the Seleucid king.

Independent Ascalon (103–63 BCE)
By 103 BCE Ascalon began using its own calendar, formally marking its independence. The city remained neutral during the 103–102 BCE conflict involving Hasmonean Alexander Jannaeus (), the exiled Ptolemy IX Soter (Lathyrus) who invaded from , and the reigning Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, . Ascalon is thought to have maintained amicable relations with both the Hasmoneans and Ptolemaic Egypt, a diplomatic stance that likely contributed to its continued autonomy. This is supported by the fact that, while Jannaeus conquered the southern coastal region and destroyed Gaza in 95/94 BCE, Ascalon remained untouched, making it the only independent Hellenistic coastal city south of Acre. It continued to maintain friendly relations with both powers for the next four decades until the conquest of .

The recounts a story about a significant case of an early , during the reign of the Hasmonean queen . the court of Simeon ben Shetach sentenced to death eighty women in Ascalon who had been charged with sorcery. Yerushalmi Sanhedrin, 6:6.

Roman period (63 BCE – 4th century CE)
By 63 BCE, Roman general conquered the territories of the Hasmonean Kingdom, bringing the region under Roman control for nearly seven centuries. Pompey granted freedom to the Hellenistic cities and incorporated them into . Ascalon, however, was recognized as civitas libera et immunis, a free and exempt city. This status allowed it to retain autonomy over its internal affairs, including the authority to establish local laws. Ascalon was also exempt from hosting Roman soldiers and statesmen, and possibly paying taxes, though the latter remains uncertain. Nevertheless, the city was subject to Roman authority in foreign affairs and was obligated to provide military recruits when required.

During the first two decades of Roman rule, members of the family of the former Hasmonean king sought refuge in Ascalon. This is known from accounts of Caesar's civil war, which began 49 BCE, when they were rescued from Ascalon by Ptolemy (son of Mennaeus), and taken to Chalchis (modern Anjar, Lebanon). Later, in 47 BCE, was fighting the Ptolemaic Kingdom, who besieged him in Alexandria. A relief force led by Mithridates II of the Bosporus assembled in Ascalon, before marcing to and ultimately lifting the siege. Following Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE, the Empire descended into renewed instability. In 40 BCE, the invaded the eastern provinces and captured the , including Ascalon. The Parthians installed Antigonus II Mattathias, son of Aristobolus II—who had previously taken refuge in Ascalon—as king, making him the last ruler of the Hasmonean dynasty. His reign was short-lived. In 37 BCE, he was deposed by Herod the Great, who was appointed by Rome as the of .

Ascalon was never included in the territory of Herod the Great. However, it is listed among the cities outside his domain where he financed major construction projects. According to , Herod built bath houses, elaborate fountains and large colonnades in the city. It is known that his daughter inherited a "palace in Ascalon". Some historians have speculated that this was a residence originally built for Herod himself, suggesting that he maintained amicable relations with the city, despite its political autonomy. A discredited tradition even suggests Ascalon was his birthplace. In 6 CE, when a Roman imperial province was set in Judea, overseen by a lower-rank governor, Ascalon was moved directly to the higher jurisdiction of the governor of Syria province.

Ascalon had a Hellenistic population. sources attest that it had some Jewish population in the early Roman period. The Hellenistic–Jewish scholar recounts that during the Alexandrian riots (38 CE) against Jews, the inhabitants of Ascalon resented the Jews deeply, but that does not imply there were no Jews in the city. recounts that during the First Jewish–Roman War, Jewish rebels attacked Ascalon and that in retaliation the Ascalonians massacred 2,500 Jews in or around the city. With that said, several Talmud sources attest to continued Jewish presence in the city after these events.

Byzantine period (4th century – 641 CE)
The 4th century CE was the time during which a process of began in Ascalon. This process was not peaceful, and numerous Christian sources recount the hostilities between pagans and Christians. reports that in 311, during the Diocletianic Persecution, residents of Ascalon martyred Egyptian Christians. Hostilities are reported again during the reign of Julian ( 361–363), who restored paganism in the empire. His stay in between June 362 and April 363 encouraged his pagan supporters and is marked as time of particular unrest. reports that pagans burnt a in Ascalon and the 5th century Christian historian recounts atrocities against bishops and women. Archaeological evidence of the hostilities comes from a found north of Ascalon, near a Christian suburb of the city. The milestone is inscribed with both "God is one" and "Be victorious, Julian!". This was interpreted as a part of a propaganda war between Christians and pagans.

Despite the hostilities, by 321, Christianity was already firmly established in Ascalon, with the mentioning of the city's earliest known bishop Longinus. Other bishops of Ascalon whose names are known include Sabinus, who was at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, and his immediate successor, Epiphanius. Auxentius took part in the First Council of Constantinople in 381, Jobinus in a synod held in in 415, Leontius in both the Robber Council of Ephesus in 449 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Bishop Dionysius, who represented Ascalon at a synod in Jerusalem in 536, was on another occasion called upon to pronounce on the validity of a with sand in waterless desert. He sent the person to be baptized in water.Bagatti, Ancient Christian Villages of Judaea and Negev, quoted in The Madaba Mosaic Map: Ascalon Pius Bonifacius Gams, Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae , Leipzig 1931, p. 452

No longer a residential bishopric, Ascalon is today listed by the as a . Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ), p. 840 The city of Ascalon appears on a fragment of the 6th-century .

(1992). 9789039000113, Kok Pharos Publishing House. .
quoted in The Madaba Mosaic Map: Ascalon

Early Islamic period (641–1099)
The Muslim conquest of Palestine started in 634. Islamic historian recounts that Ascalon ( ʿAsḳalân in Arabic) was one of the last Byzantine cities in the region to fall. It may have been temporarily occupied by Amr ibn al-As, but definitively surrendered after a siege to Mu'awiya I (who later founded the Umayyad Caliphate) not long after he captured the Byzantine district capital of Caesarea in 640. Mu'awiya turned the town into a fortified garrison, settling cavalry there.Al-Baladhuri, 1912, p. During ''s and ''s rule (634–644 and 644–656, respectively), tracts of land in Ascalon were awarded to Muslims.
(2025). 9781400847877, Princeton University Press. .

During the Muslim civil war of 680–692 (), the south of came under the military rule of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's caliphate. By that time, the Byzantines reoccupied Asqalan, razed the city and deported its inhabitants. While in the time of the region came back to Umayyad hands, the Byzantines either left Ascalon or were forced out only after Marwan's son, Abd al-Malik () won the civil war. Ascalon enjoyed an era of prosperity after Abd al-Malik rebuilt and fortified it. Despite it not being a good harbor, the city enjoyed its position between Syria and Egypt and their fertile lands. Islamic scholar called it "the Bride of Syria". From the year 712 Ascalon began minting its own coins, with the Arabic inscription "Struck in Filastin, Askalan".Sharon, 1995. pp. 64–65 A son of Caliph Sulayman (), whose family resided in , was buried in the city.

During the Abbasid period, the power center of the caliphate shifted from Syria to Iraq. An inscription found by Charles Clermont-Ganneau in the 19th century indicates that the Abbasid caliph ordered the construction of a mosque with a in Asqalan in 772. Towards the end of the 9th century Abbasid rule in Syria dwindled. By 878 it was effectively under the rule of the of Egypt, who developed the coastal cities such as Acre, Caesarea Maritima and probably also Ascalon.

In 969, the Fatimid general Jawhar captured Syria and Palestine and annexed the territory to the Fatimid Caliphate of . Ascalon prospered during the ensuing period. Islamic geographer (945–991) described Ascalon, admiring its fortifications, garrison, mosque and fruits, but also recounted that its port was unsafe. A similar description was given by Persian scholar who visited Palestine in 1047. The absence of a port was recounted also by later scholars such as Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad (1217–1285) and (1273–1331). It was cited as one of the reason why Ascalon was one of the last coastal cities to stand against the Crusaders. In the 1070s, along with a few other coastal towns in Palestine, it remained in Fatimid hands when most of Syria was conquered by the . Fatimid rule over Ascalon was nevertheless loosened, with the governor often exercising a greater latitude of authority over the city than the nominal authority of the Egyptian caliphate.

In 1091, a couple of years after a campaign by to reestablish Fatimid control over the region, the head of Husayn ibn Ali (a grandson of the Islamic prophet ) was "rediscovered", prompting Badr to order the construction of a new mosque and (shrine or mausoleum) to hold the relic, known as the Shrine of Husayn's Head.

(2025). 9781474460965, University Press Scholarship Online. .
(2025). 9780195309911, Oxford University Press.
According to another source, the shrine was built in 1098 by the Fatimid vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah.

Crusader period (1099–1270)
During the , Ascalon was an important city due to its location near the coast and between the and Egypt. It remained the last major Fatimid stronghold for over half a century.

Negotiations over Jerusalem between the crusaders and the Fatimids, who had recently gained control of the city from the Seljuks, broke down in May 1099 during the final stages of the .

(1997). 9780521589871, Cambridge University Press. .
This led to the siege and eventual capture of Jerusalem on 15 July. The remnants of the Fatimid army retreated to Ascalon. After negotiations ended in May, the Fatimids had begun raising an army at Ascalon, ready to raise the siege of Jerusalem. In August, an army of about 10,000 crusaders marched on Ascalon to meet the army being raised. They surprised the Fatimids in battle on 12 August just north of the city of Ascalon. While the crusader army defeated the Fatimid force of around 20,000, the city itself was not captured and remained in Fatimid hands, serving as a base for military activity against the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
(1997). 9780521589871, Cambridge University Press. .
After the Crusader conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, the six elders of the Jewish community in Ascalon contributed to the ransoming of captured Jews and holy relics from Jerusalem's new rulers. The Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon, which was sent to the Jewish elders of , describes their participation in the ransom effort and the ordeals suffered by many of the freed captives.
(1990). 9783882264791, Reichert.

In 1100, Ascalon was among the Fatimid coastal cities (along with Arsuf, Caesarea and Acre) that paid tribute to the crusaders, as part of a short truce. In 1101, Caesarea and Arsuf were captured by the Crusaders, and their people fled to Ascalon. To protect the influx of Islamic population, military reinforcements were sent from Egypt, who provided the city with supplies and maintained its garrison. Ascalon thus became a major Fatimid frontier post. It was subjected to a Crusader blockade, often blocking the land route from Egypt, making it only accessible through the sea. The trade between Ascalon and Crusader Jerusalem resumed by that time, though the inhabitants of Ascalon regularly struggled with shortages in food and supplies. This necessitated the provisions from Egypt on several occasions each year. According to William of Tyre, the entire civilian population of the city was included in the Fatimid army registers. Fatimid ruler dispatched between 300 and 600 horesmen to protect Ascalon. Each company had 100 troops and was commanded by an . A general was put in charge of all companies. They were paid 100 for each emir, and 30 dinars for every horsemen. The Fatimids then used it to launch raids into the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Fatimid–Crusader hostilities (1101–1153)
In July 1101, two years after the battle of Ascalon, Fatimid vizier Al-Afdal Shahanshah launched an offensive from Ascalon to recapture . By 7 September, Baldwin I defeated the Fatimid troops, and a year later besieged the city, destroying its rural hinterlands. Ascalon was further isolated by the fall of Acre in 1104, but kept serving as a Fatimid base. In August 1105, Al-Afdal launched yet another failed attack from Ascalon, the most serious of his campaigns using both naval and ground forces. The Franks won the land battle and it has been recounted that when they encountered the Fatimid fleet in Jaffa, they threw the head of the defeated governor of Ascalon on board of the Egyptian ships, to inform them of the Crusader victory.

After the Fatimid defeat in 1105, they no longer posed immediate threat to the Crusaders. And yet, Ascalon was deemed impregnable, and its proximities to Egyptian ports made it a primary concern for their Crusader army, as it continued to serve from time to time as base for small-scale incursions. In 1124 Tyre fell to the Crusaders, making Ascalon the last Fatimid stronghold on the Levantine coast. Baldwin II of Jerusalem led an attack against Ascalon in 1125, that repelled by the Muslims, who continued their incursions. In 1134, the Crusader count of Jaffa, Hugh II, rebelled against King Fulk, who accused him of conspiring against his realm, and of intimate relations with his wife. Hugh II rode to Ascalon to seek help, and the Muslim troops were happy to contribute to the internal feud among the Crusader. Troops left Ascalon to Jaffa and raided the , until Fulk's forces repelled them. Later. A year later, Fatimid vizier Ridwan ibn Walakhshi was appointed governor of Ascalon and the western . Ridwan found refuge in Ascalon during his conflict with in 1138–9.

In the time of Fulk, three fortresses were erected around the city, in order to address the threats it imposed on Jerusalem: Beth Gibelin (1135–6), Ibelin (1140) and Blanchgard (1142). The failure of the and the rise of the in Syria motivated Baldwin III of Jerusalem in 1150 to begin preparations to capture Ascalon once and for all. He fortified , which concerned the Fatimids in Egypt, who requested a pre-emptive strike by the Zengids from the north. These refused, but sent Zengid prince Usama ibn Munqidh, who stayed there for four months and helped reinforce Ascalon's fortifications.

Crusader siege and rule (1153–1187)
's book " Passages d'outremer" (1474)|300x300px]]In January 1153, crusader king Baldwin III recruited almost all land and naval forces at disposal and laid siege to Ascalon. The siege lasted seven months, during which the city was bombarded by Crusader siege weapons. The Franks found a well prepared city, with strong walls and ample supply of provisions. The Fatimids manage to send over seventy ships with resources to the city during the siege. In his recount of the conquest of Ascalon, William of Tyre described the city from the Crusader point of view:

Much to the disadvantage of the Muslim garrison in Ascalon, internal conflicts within the Fatimid court and military led to the assassination of Fatimid vizier and general Al-Adil ibn al-Sallar, while preparing the Fatimid fleet for a counterattack. His stepson Abbas ibn Abi al-Futuh who was involved in his murder then went back to Egypt to be appointed a vizier in his stead, leaving Ascalon without his troops. In July 1153, six months after the start of the siege, there was a breach in the wall followed by a failed attack by the . By that point the siege was almost abandoned, but Raymond du Puy convinced the king to resume. On 19 August, Ascalon's anchorage was taken and its defenders were subdued by the Crusaders. recorded that upon the city's surrender, all Muslims with the means to do so emigrated from the city. The Fatimids secured the head of Husayn from its mausoleum outside the city and transported it to their capital .Benjamin Z. Kedar. "Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant." In James M. Powell, editor. Muslims under Latin Rule, 1100–1300. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985. p. 150 A year after the conquest, Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi described the city's markets and fortifications, but also the destrcution of its environs, caused by its siege.

Ascalon became a crusader lordship and was granted to Amalric, the count of Jaffa and Baldwin III's brother, who later succeeded him as king. Together the two formed the County of Jaffa and Ascalon, which became one of the four major seigneuries of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The great mosque was turned into a church – the Cathedral of St. Paul and the city was turned into a directly under the Patriarch of Jerusalem. Eventually a decision from Rome subordinated it to the Bishop of . The Fatimid dynasty continued to disintegrate due to internal conflicts and could not retake Ascalon.

Ayyubid destruction and Third Crusade (1187–1191)
, the founder of the which abolished the Fatimid state, marched on Ascalon by September 1187, as part of his conquest of the following the Battle of Hattin. He took with him the crusader prisoners, King Guy of Lusignan and Templar Grand Master Gerard of Ridefort. The prisoners were promised liberty should the city surrender under their command, but the Christian troops at Ascalon did not obey their captured king's commands. The city surrendered after a brief, yet harsh battle. The Christian population was deported to and from there to Europe.

The Ayyubid rule of Ascalon was short-lived. In 1191, during the , Saladin ordered to methodically demolish the city because of its potential strategic importance to the crusaders. This is captured in an anecdote in which a reluctant Saladin is reported to have exclaimed: " Wallah, I would rather see my children perish than lose Ascalon!" The destruction of the city and the deportation of its inhabitants is well described in Islamic sources. Some Muslim scholars including have recounted that the destruction of Ascalon was forced upon him by his emirs. A few hundred Jews, Karaites and Rabbanites, were living in Ascalon in the second half of the 12th century, but moved to Jerusalem following its destruction.

In January 1192, crusade leader King Richard the Lionheart of England, proceeded to reconstruct Ascalon's fortifications, an endeavor that lasted four months. It thus became the most formidable fortress along the Mediterranean coast. This fact hampered the negotiations between Richard and Saladin in 1192, as Saladin demanded its destruction. Eventually, peace was signed in Jaffa and the city's recently constructed fortifications were destroyed yet again by September 1192.

Crusader restoration to final destruction (1229–1270)
In 1229, following the Treaty of Jaffa, which concluded the , brought Ascalon back to Crusader hands. And yet, because of internal strife among the crusaders, the city remained in ruins until the Ayyubids made it a frontal post to their base in . In 1239, the Barons' Crusade was launched, led by Theobald I of Navarre who planned an assault on Ayyubid forces in Egypt. He encamped in the ruins of Ascalon, later abandoning it after one of his men, Henry II, disobeyed his orders and led a failed assault on Gaza. The Knights Hospitaller signed a peace agreement with the Ayyubids and Ascalon was given to the Crusaders, who were permitted to reconstruct its fortifications. The work on Ascalon's fortifications was first overseen by Theobald I until his depart to Europe. After him, it was Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy who replaced him and ultimately, Richard of Cornwall oversaw its completion in April 1241, again becoming one of the strongest strongholds in the Mediterranean, with a double wall and series of towers. In a letter, Richard described Ascalon as the "key" to both land and sea, and as a permanent threat to Egypt.

During Sultan 's conflict against the crusaders, he exploited crusader defeats in Jerusalem to march on Ascalon. In 1244, the Egyptian army headed by , defeated the Hospitaller troops at Gaza and blockaded Ascalon. The city's garrison managed to hold against the Egyptian troops. In June 1247, after capturing Damascus, the Egyptians dedicated all of the military efforts to Ascalon, and the city fell on 15 October 1247, after an assault headed by Fakhr al-Din ibn al-Shaykh. Afterwards, As-Salih Ayyub ordered again the dismantling of the walls.

The ancient and of Ascalon was brought to an end in 1270, when the then Mamluk sultan ordered the citadel and harbour at the site to be destroyed as part of a wider decision to destroy the Levantine coastal towns in order to forestall future Crusader invasions. Some monuments, like the shrine of Sittna Khadra and Shrine of Husayn's Head survived. This event irreversibly changed the settlement patterns in the region. As a substitute for 'Asqalān, Baybars established Majdal 'Asqalān, 3 km inland, and endowed it with a magnificent Friday Mosque, a marketplace and religious shrines.

Ottoman period (1516–1917)
In the first Ottoman of 1526/7 Ascalon (still referred to as Asqalān) and its surrounding environs were recorded as being unpopulated. By 1596 CE, the village of , then named as Jawrat al-Hajja, was founded just outside the northeastern perimeter of Ascalon's still mounded ramparts.Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 150

Archaeology
Beginning in the 18th century, the site was visited, and occasionally drawn, by a number of adventurers and tourists. It was also often scavenged for building materials. The first known excavation occurred in 1815. Lady Hester Stanhope dug there for two weeks using 150 workers. No real records were kept.Charles L. Meryon (1846). Travels of Lady Hester Stanhope. 3 vols. London: Henry Colburn. In the 1800s some classical pieces from Ascalon (though long thought to be from Thessaloniki) were sent to the Ottoman Museum. By the time of the commissioning of the PEF Survey of Palestine in 1871–77, the interior of Ascalon's ruined perimeter was divided into cultivated fields, interspersed with wells. From 1920 to 1922 and W. J. Phythian-Adams excavated on behalf of the Palestine Exploration Fund. They focused on two areas, one Roman and the other Philistine/Canaanite.John Garstang, "The Fund's Excavation of Askalon, 1920–1921", PEFQS, vol. 53, pp. 73–75, 1921.John Garstang, "Askalon Reports: The Philistine Problem", PEFQS, vol. 53, pp. 162–63, 1921.John Garstang, "The Excavations at Ashkalon", PEFQS, vol. 54, pp. 112–19, 1922.John Garstang, "Ashkalon", PEFQS, vol. 56, pp. 24–35, 1924.W. J. Phythian-Adams, "History of Askalon", PEFQS, vol. 53, pp. 76–90, 1921.W. J. Phythian-Adams, "Askalon Reports: Stratigraphical Sections", PEFQS, vol. 53, pp. 163–69, 1921.W. J. Phythian-Adams, "Report on the Stratification of Askalon", PEFQS, vol. 55, pp. 60–84, 1923. Over the more recent decades a number of salvage excavations were carried out by the Israel Antiquities Authority.[5] Yaakov Huster, Daniel M. Master, and Michael D. Press, "Ashkelon 5: The Land behind Ashkelon", Eisenbrauns, 2015

Modern excavation began in 1985 with the Leon Levy Expedition. Between then and 2006, seventeen seasons of work took place, led by Lawrence Stager of Harvard University.[6] Daniel M. Master, J. David Schloen, and Lawrence E. Stager, "Ashkelon 1: Introduction and Overview (1985–2006)", Eisenbrauns, 2008 Barbara L. Johnson, "Ashkelon 2: Imported Pottery of the Roman and Late Roman Periods" , Eisenbrauns, 2008, .Daniel M. Master, J. David Schloen, and Lawrence E. Stager, "Ashkelon 3: The Seventh Century B.C." , Eisenbrauns, 2011, .[9] Michael D. Press, "Ashkelon 4: The Iron Age Figurines of Ashkelon and Philistia", Eisenbrauns, 2012, .Lawrence E. Stager, J. David Schloen, and Ross J. Voss, "Ashkelon 6: The Middle Bronze Age Ramparts and Gates of the North Slope and Later Fortifications", Eisenbrauns, 2018, .Lawrence E. Stager, Daniel M. Master, and Adam J. Aja, "Ashkelon 7: The Iron Age I", Eisenbrauns, 2020, .Tracy Hoffman, "Ashkelon 8: The Islamic and Crusader Periods", Eisenbrauns, 2019, . In 1991 the ruins of a small ceramic tabernacle was found, containing a finely cast bronze statuette of a calf, originally silvered, long. In the 1997 season a table fragment was found, being a lexical list containing both Sumerian and Canaanite language columns. It was found in a Late Bronze Age II context, about 13th century BCE.

Legacy
William Albright said of the city: "Ascalon is a name to conjure with. Few cities in the Old World had a more romantic history than this, from the time when its fleets according to Greek tradition, held the thalassocracy of the eastern Mediterranean to its romantic destruction by its own suzerain, Saladin, who thus avoided its impending capture by the Lion Heart."

The and are both types of onion named after ancient Ascalon. The name "scallion" is derived from the Old French escaloigne, by way of the Vulgar Latin escalonia, from the Latin Ascalōnia caepa or onion of Ascalon. "scallion", at Balashon – Hebrew Language Detective, 5 July 2006. Accessed 28 Feb 2024. "Shallot" is also derived from escaloigne, but by way of the 1660s diminutive form eschalotte.

The derivative "Im schwarzen Walfisch zu Askalon" (In the Black Whale of Ascalon) is a German historically sung in German universities. Joseph Victor von Scheffel provided the lyrics under the title Altassyrisch (Old Assyrian) in 1854, while the melody is from 1783 or earlier. "Im schwarzen Walfisch zu Askalon", lieder-archiv.de

Notable people
Chronologically by death year:
  • Antiochus of Ascalon (125–68 BCE), Platonic philosopher
  • Artemidorus of Ascalon (d. 46 BCE), Hellenistic philosopher
  • Aristus of Ascalon (c. 120/110–46/45 BCE), Hellenistic philosopher, brother of Antiochus
  • Eutocius of Ascalon (c. 480s – c. 520s), Byzantine philosopher
  • (c. 1045–1149), Fatimid caliph

Notes
Sources

: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
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